joyous

SELF AND UNIT EVALUATION UNIT #4

2008-07-24T20:12:00.000-07:00

SELF EVALUATION

1. I am most proud of both of my compendium reviews and quiz #1, finally a 100%.
2. I could of improved my ethical essay a lot, and the final lab.
3. I believe my overall grade should be an A.
4. This is the last unit. HOORAY!!!!

UNIT EVALUATION
1. I actually felt most engaged doing the last lab and thinking what species we interact with daily.
2. I don't have a specific on feeling distance from the course.
3. As always, the links were very helpful.
4. Nothing was confusing or puzzling.
5. At the end of the course, I found nothing that was surprising

ETHICAL ESSAY - WHO SHOULD REPRODUCE

2008-07-24T19:57:00.000-07:00

In thinking about this topic and thinking about the changes in the world how do we answer this question? First of all, I don't think we should be able to decide on who should reproduce. In some countries maybe there should be a little restraint or boundaries. Here in the United States I think families are getting smaller as years go on. Having five or six kids use to be the norm and great. Now two maybe three is enough. For some families the decision of having children is based on income and if it could be afforded. Unfortunately, it is getting more expensive just to live, much less raise a big family. Today, prices of food, gas, electric and other needed amenities is skyrocketing. What can we do? Honestly, I don't have any good answers for that. But we need to do all we can to help preserve.

I know that we as a society are using more of our natural resources than we ever were. I wonder how our grandparents ever survived without big SUV's, cell phones, internet, computers, oh and somebody else to do the cooking. Yes, I love all these things, but maybe we can use them a little less and save some oil. We can also take our part and help save some of these resources. Cutting back on certain things and recycling. Everything created on Earth was meant for us to use and we need to try to ensure that there will be some for the next generation, for my kids to grow up and their kids to grow up.

SPECIES INTERACTION LAB

2008-07-24T14:08:00.000-07:00

SPECIES #1

SCIENTIFIC NAME: APIS MELLIFERA

COMMON NAME: HONEYBEE

INTERACTION: COMMENSAL BECAUSE WE GET HONEY FROM THEM.

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: YES

SPECIES #2
SCIENTIFIC NAME: ARACHIS HYPOGAEA

COMMON NAME: PEANUT

INTERACTION: SYMBIOTIC BECAUSE WE PLANT THEM AND COMMENSAL MAYBE BECAUSE WE EAT THEM, PEANUTS ARE USED TO MAKE PEANUT BUTTER

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: YES, WE PLANT THEM

SPECIES #3

SCIENTIFIC NAME: CANIS FAMILARIS
COMMON NAME: DOG

INTERACTION: SYMBIOTIC, WE FEED AND TAKE CARE OF THEM AND THEY PROVIDE COMPANIONSHIP AND SOME A WATCHDOG.
DOMESTICATED SPECIES: YES

SPECIES #4

SCIENTIFIC NAME: PSITTACUS ERITHACUS

COMMON NAME: AFRICAN GREY PARROT

INTERACTION: SYMBIOTIC, I FEED HIM AND GIVE HIM ATTENTION ALL HE DOES IS TALK BACK. HA HA!
DOMESTICATED SPECIES: SOME ARE PETS BUT THERE ARE STILL SOME IN THE WILD

SPECIES #5

SCIENTIFIC NAME: CHRYSEMYS SCRIPTA ELEGAN

COMMON NAME: RED EARED SLIDER

INTERACTION: SYMBIOTIC, WE FEED AND PROVIDE A HOME AND HE ALSO PROVIDES US WITH ENTERTAINMENT.
DOMESTICATED SPECIES: SOME ARE PETS BUT THERE ARE STILL SOME IN THE WILD

SPECIES #6

SCIENTIFIC NAME: GOPHERUS AGASSIZII

COMMON NAME: DESERT TORTOISE
INTERACTION: SYMBIOTIC, FEED AND PROVIDE SHELTER

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: SOME ARE PETS BUT THERE ARE STILL SOME IN THE WILD

SPECIES #7

SCIENTIFIC NAME: GOSSYPIUM

COMMON NAME: COTTON

INTERACTION: NOT SURE WHICH CATEGORY, BUT WE USE IT FOR MAKING OF CLOTHES

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: YES

SPECIES #8

SCIENTIFIC NAME: H2O

COMMON NAME: WATER

INTERACTION: IT PROVIDES US WITH HYDRATION

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: YES

SPECIES #9

SCIENTIFIC NAME: DRACAENA SANDERIANA

COMMON NAME: LUCKY BAMBOO
INTERACTION: SYMBIOTIC, I PROVIDE WATER, CARBON DIOXIDE, IT PROVIDES BEAUTY AND OXYGEN

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: YES

SPECIES #10

SCIENTIFIC NAME: TRITICUM AESTIVUM

COMMON NAME: WHEAT

INTERACTION: COMMENSAL, BECAUSE I GET FOOD FROM IT.

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: YES

SPECIES #11

SCIENTIFIC NAME: BOS PRIMIGENIUS TAURUS

COMMON NAME: COW

INTERACTION: COMMENSAL, BECAUSE WE DRINK MILK FROM IT AND EAT ITS MEAT

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: YES

SPECIES #12
SCIENTIFIC NAME: SOLANUM TUBEROSUM
COMMON NAME: POTATO

INTERACTION: COMMENSAL BECAUSE WE EAT THEM

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: YES

SPECIES #13

SCIENTIFIC NAME: ZEA MAYS

COMMON NAME: CORN

INTERACTION: COMMENSAL, BECAUSE WE EAT THEM

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: YES

SPECIES #14

SCIENTIFIC NAME: GALLUS DOMESTICUS

COMMON NAME: CHICKEN

INTERACTION: COMMENSAL, BECAUSE CHICKENS LAY EGGS AND WE EAT THEM. PREY BECAUSE WE ALSO EAT THE CHICKEN.

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: YES

SPECIES #15

SCIENTIFIC NAME: BETTA SPLENDENS

COMMON NAME: BETA OR CHINESE FIGHTING FISH

INTERACTION: SYMBIOTIC, I FEED HIM AND PROVIDE SHELTER.

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: YES

SPECIES #16

SCIENTIFIC NAME: DERMATOPHAGOIDES FARINAE

COMMON NAME: DUST MITES

INTERACTION: PARASITIC, LIVES OFF OF THINGS LIKE DEAD SKIN CELLS FROM US
DOMESTICATED SPECIES: NO

SPECIES #17

SCIENTIFIC NAME: SELASPHORUS SASIN
COMMON NAME: HUMMINGBIRD

INTERACTION: SYMBIOTIC, FEED THEM WITH FEEDERS OUTSIDE AND THEY PROVIDE THEIR BEAUTY TO WATCH.

DOMESTICATED: NO

SPECIES #18

SCIENTIFIC NAME: JUNIPERUS COMMUNIS

COMMON NAME: JUNIPER

INTERACTION: SYMBIOTIC, THEY PROVIDE SHADE AND SOME BEAUTY

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: NO

SPECIES #19

SCIENTIFIC NAME: DEPENDS

COMMON NAME: SUSHI

INTERACTION: COMMENSAL, DEPENDING ON THE TYPE OF FISH OR SEAFOOD USED IT IS PROVIDING US WITH FOOD

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: NO

SPECIES #20

SCIENTIFIC NAME: NONE FOUND SOMETIMES REFERRED TO AS CALCULUS
COMMON NAME: TARTAR

INTERACTION: NOT SURE, BUT WE TAKE IT OFF BY BRUSHING OUR TEETH

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: NO

SPECIES #21
SCIENTIFIC NAME: MANIS RELIGIOSA

COMMON NAME: PRAYING MANTIS

INTERACTION: SYMBIOTIC, WHEN MY LIGHTS ARE ON IN MY HOUSE AT NIGHT IT ATTRACTS BUGS, THE PRAYING MANTIS GETS RID OF SOME OF THESE BUGS.

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: NO

SPECIES #22

SCIENTIFIC NAME: PHOLCUS PHALANGIOIDES

COMMON NAME: DADDY-LONG LEGS SPIDER

INTERACTION: SYMBIOTIC, KILLS BUGS FOR ME

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: NO

SPECIES #23

SCIENTIFIC NAME: APHONOPELMA CHALCODDES

COMMON NAME: TARANTULA

INTERACTION: SYMBIOTIC, TAKES CARE OF BUG PROBLEMS

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: NO

SPECIES #24

SCIENTIFIC NAME: SCELOPOROUS TRISTICHUS

COMMON NAME: LIZARD

INTERACTION: SYMBIOTIC, I LET HIM LIVE ON THE SIDE OF MY HOUSE AND HE EATS LOTS OF BUGS

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: NO

SPECIES#25

SCIENTIFIC NAME: HOMOSAPIEN

COMMON NAME: MY KIDS

INTERACTION: SYMBIOTIC, PLAYING, OR ARGUING AND EVERYTHING ELSE FAMILY DOES

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: YES, WELL SOMETIMES I WONDER. JUST KIDDING!

HUMAN POPULATIONS DEMOGRAPHICS LAB FOR UNIT #4

2008-07-24T11:11:00.000-07:00

In this illustration, is the high fertility rate of Africa.

In this illustration is the low fertility rate country of Belgium.

1. What was your high fertility rate country and what was its fertility rate?
- Africa was my high fertility rate country, its rate was 5.92.

2. What was your low fertility rate country and what was its fertility rate?

- Belgium was my low fertility rate country, its rate was 1.6
3. The initial demographic "shape" of your high fertility rate country should have been a pyramid, with high population in young age groups. Explain why high fertility rate results in a high percentage of young people in the population. How does this affect future population growth?

- There are a higher percentage in young people because there is more reproducing per person, this will also continue and the population will increase over time.
4. Your low fertility rate country might have had a more oval-shaped curve with high population in middle age groups. This is especially exaggerated if the fertility rate is below 2.00. Explain why low fertility rate leads to lots of middle-aged people.
-People are reproducing less, at a slower rate, over years so middle aged category will increase and older people will die of natural causes.

5. Write ten adjectives or descriptive phrases for what you might expect life, people's attitudes, conditions on the streets, etc. will be like in each of those situations. Imagine a situation with lots of middle-aged and older people in the population and write ten quick "brain-storm" descriptors for you think it would be like (Prescott, Arizona?). Then do the same for a situation with lots of children in the population.

- middle-aged and older- responsible, slow, old, boring, organized, strict, clean, hardworking, doesn’t adapt easily to change.

- young people - energetic, irresponsible, fun, adapts easy, messy, spontaneous, loud, school, active, fast food.

COMPENDIUM REVIEW #2 FOR UNIT #4

2008-07-17T08:26:00.000-07:00

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 22 - HUMAN EVOLUTION
1. ORIGIN OF LIFE
a. Primitive earth
b. Small organic molecules
c. Macromolecules
d. Protocell
e. True cell
2. BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
a. Common descent
b. Intelligent design
c. Natural selection
3. CLASSIFICATION OF HUMANS
a. DNA data and human evolution
b. Humans are primates
c. Comparison
4. EVOLUTION OF HOMINIDS
a. First hominids
b. Features
c. Earliest fossil
d. Australopithercines
e. Southern Africa
f. Eastern Africa
5. EVOLUTION OF HUMANS
a. Early homo
b. Modern humans
c. Neandertals
d. Cro-magnons
e. Human variation

CHAPTER 23 - GLOBAL ECOLOGY AND HUMAN INTERFERENCES
6. THE NATURE OF ECOSYSTEMS
a. Ecosystems
b. Biotic components
c. Energy flow and chemical cycling
7. ENERGY FLOW
a. Trophic levels
b. Ecological pyramids
8. GLOBAL BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
a. Water
b. Carbon
c. Nitrogen
d. Phosphorus

CHAPTER 24 - HUMAN POPULATION, PLANETARY RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION

9. HUMAN POPULATION GROWTH
a. MDC's versus LDC's
10. HUMAN USE OF RESOURCES AND POLLUTION
a. Land
b. Water
c. Food
d. Energy
e. Minerals
11. BIODIVERSITY
a. Loss
b. Direct value
c. Indirect value
12. WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABLE SOCIETY
a. Today's unsustainable
b. Characteristics of sustainable
c. Assessing economic well being and quality of life

CHAPTER 22 - HUMAN EVOLUTION
Origin of Life

A fundamental principle of biology states that all living things are made of cells and that every cell comes from a preexisting cell. Could chemical evolution have produced that first cell?

Using outside energy source, small organic molecules were produced by reactions between early Earth's atmospheric gases. See illustration.*
Macromolecules evolved and interacted.

The RNA-first hypothesis was only macromolecule RNA was needed for the first cell.
The protein-first hypothesis was amino acids join to form polypeptides when exposed to dry heat.
The protocell lived on preformed organic molecules in the ocean. The protocell eventually became a true cell once it had genes composed of DNA and could reproduce.

BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

Biological evolution explains both the unity and diversity of life.

Descent from a common ancestor explains the unity of living things.

Adaptation to different environments explains the great diversity of living things.

The fossil record gives us the history of life in general and allows us to trace the descent of a particular group. This indeed says that fossil evidence supports evolution. See illustration.*

Darwin discovered evidence for common descent.

The distribution of organisms on Earth is explainable by assuming that organisms evolved in one locale. This is biogeographical evidence.
The common anatomies and development of a group of organisms are explainable by descent from a common ancestor. This is anatomical evidence.

All organisms have similar biochemical molecules. This is biochemical evidence.

Darwin also developed a mechanism for adaptation known as natural selection.

The result of natural selection is a population adapted to its local environment.

See illustration.*

CHAPTER 23 - GLOBAL ECOLOGY AND HUMAN INTERFERENCES

The Nature of Ecosystems

The study of the interactions of organisms with each other and with the physical environment is ecology. An ecosystem is organisms interacting with chemical and physical environment.

Forests, grasslands, and deserts, which include the tundra are all part of terrestrial ecosystems. See illustration.*

Aquatic ecosystems include either fresh or salt water. See illustration.*

Biotic components of an ecosystem. See illustration.*

In a community, each population has a habitat and a niche(role in the community).
Autotrophs produce organic nutrients for themselves and others from inorganic nutrients and an outside energy source.
Heterotrophs consume organic nutrients.

Consumers are herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores.

Decomposers feed on detritus, releasing inorganic substances back into the ecosystem.

Ecosystems are characterized by energy flow and chemical cycling.

Energy flows through the populations of an ecosystem and chemicals cycle within and among ecosystems. See illustration.*

ENERGY FLOW
Various interconnecting paths of energy flow are called a food web. A food web shows how various organisms are connecting by eating relationships.

Grazing food webs start with vegetation(for herbivores), that actually become food for a carnivore. Detrital food webs begin with detritus, food for decomposers and food for detritivores. Detrital food webs can be eaten by above ground carnivores, which join the two food groups together. See illustration.*

A trophic level is all organisms that feed at a particular link in a food chain.

An ecological pyramid is when the flow of energy with large losses between successive trophic levels.

GLOBAL BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

Chemicals circulate through ecosystems via biogeochemical cycles, pathways involving both biotic and geological components.

Biogeochemical cycles can be gaseous, sedimentary, have reservoirs that contain inorganic nutrients available to living things on a limited basis.

Exchange pools are sources of inorganic nutrients.

In biotic communities of an ecosystem, nutrients cycle among them.

Examples being fossil fuels, minerals in rocks, sediment in oceans, the atmosphere, soil and water.

In the water cycle, the reservoir is freshwater that evaporates from the ocean.

Water that falls on land enters the ground, surface water, or aquifers and evaporates again.

All water returns to the ocean. See illustration.*

In the carbon cycle, the reservoirs are organic matter, limestone, and the ocean.

The exchange pool is the atmosphere. Photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Respiration and combustion add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. See illustration.*

In the nitrogen cycle, the reservoir is the atmosphere. Nitrogen gas must be converted to a form usable by plants.

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert nitrogen gas to ammonium, a for plants can use. Nitrifying bacteria convert ammonium to nitrate.

Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrate back to nitrogen gas. See illustration.*

In the phosphorus cycle, the reservoir is the ocean sediments.

Phosphate in ocean sediments become available through geological upheaval, which exposes sedimentary rock to weathering.

Weathering slowly makes phosphate available to the biotic community. Phosphate is a limiting nutrient in ecosystems. See illustration.*

CHAPTER 24 - HUMAN POPULATION, PLANETARY RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION

HUMAN POPULATION GROWTH

Populations have a biotic potential for increase in size. Biotic potential is normally held in check by environmental resistance. Population size usually levels off at carrying capacity. See illustration.*

MDC'S (more-developed countries) have a .1% growth rate since 1950. The LDC (less-developed countries) growth rate is 1.6% after peaking at 2.5% in the 1960s. Age structure diagrams can be used to predict population growth. See illustration.*

MDC's are approaching a stable population size and LDC populations will continue to increase in size.

HUMAN USE OF RESOURCES AND POLLUTION
Land, water, food, energy, and minerals are the 5 resources maximally used by humans.
Some resources are nonrenewable and some are renewable. The nonrenewable resources are not replenished and are limited in quantity, like land, fossil fuels and minerals.
Renewable resources are replenished but still are limited in quantity, like water, solar energy, and food.

For land, human activities contribute to erosion, pollution, desertificaiton, deforestation and loss of biodiversity. These activities include habitation, farming and mining.

For water, industry and agriculture use most of the freshwater supply. Supplies are increased by damming rivers and drawing from aquifers. As aquifers are depleted, subsidence, sinkhole formation and saltwater intrusion can occur. Water conservation methods could cut world water consumption by half, if used by industries. See illustration.*

For food, food comes from growing crops, raising animals, and fishing. Modern farming methods increase the food supply, but some methods harm the land, pollute water, and consume fossil fuels excessively. Genetically engineered plants increase the food supply and reduce the need for chemicals.

Raising livestock contributes to water pollution and uses fossil fuel energy. The increased number and high efficiency of fishing boats have caused the world fish catch to decline.

For Energy, fossil fuels are nonrenewable, like oil, natural gas, and coal. When we burn fossil fuels to clear land for farming, causes pollutants and gases to enter the air.

Greenhouse gases include CO2 and other gases. These gases cause global warming because solar radiation can pass through, but infrared heat cannot escape back into space. Renewable resources include hydropower, geothermal, wind and solar power. See illustration.*

For minerals, they are nonrenewable resources that can be mined. These include, sand, gravel, phosphate, and metals. Mining causes destruction of the land by erosion, loss of vegetation, and toxic runoff into bodies of water. Some metals are dangerous to health.

Billions of tons of solid waste are discarded on land and in water. Heavy metals (lead, arsenic, cadmium, chromium), Synthetic organic chemicals, include CFCs, found in plastics, pesticides, herbicides, and other products. Ozone shield destruction is associated with CFCs. Other synthetic organic chemicals enter the aquatic food chain where the toxins become more concentrated.

BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity is the variety of life on Earth. The five major causes of biodiversity loss and extinction are, habitat loss, introduction of alien species, pollution, overexploitation of plant and animals, and disease.
There are 2 values of biodiversity: direct and indirect.

Direct values are medicinal value(medicines), agricultural value(crops, biological pest controls and animals pollinators), and consumptive use values(food production).

Indirect values are waste disposal, freshwater provision through the water biogeochemical cycle, prevention of soil erosion, function of biogeochemical cycles, climate regulation, and ecotourism(human enjoyment of a beautiful ecosystem).

WORKING TOWARD A SUSTAINABLE SOCIETY

Here in the illustration* are things not to do to attain a sustainable society.

A sustainable society would use only renewable energy sources, would reuse heat and waste materials, and would recycle almost everything. It would also provide the same goods and services presently provided and would preserve biodiversity.

*http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/classware/selfstudy.do?isbn=0072986867

EMBRYONIC AND FETAL DEVELOPMENT LAB

2008-07-16T12:33:00.000-07:00

First of all, I think every stage is very important and it was hard to pick ten.

Anyway, the list of stages I picked are: 1. Conception/Fertilization, 2. Nervous system beginning to develop, 3. Heart development, 4. limb buds and sensory organs, 5. Bone and facial features, all systems are developing, 6. fetal movement felt by mother, skeleton is visible, hair, and gender 7. Heartbeat heard, protective cheesy coating called vernix, pain and heart 8. Skeleton, gender, hair 9. Grasp things, heartbeat can be heard, protective coating 10. Fetus is almost ready.

The first event I chose is Fertilization. To me it is significant because this is when it all starts and begins to form. All chromosomes are present and unique life begins. See illustration.*

Second event - On day 22 the heart beats and pumps own blood. This is significant because it is starting to become more of a life with its own heart beat.

Third event - Nervous system in week 3 starts to develop. Blood vessels are present. Placenta starts to also form. Its important because the nervous system "runs" the body. This is how we feel things etc.

Fourth event - In week 5, limbs and hands, nose, eyes and ears are noticeable. Important because we know that smelling, seeing and hearing are developing and all 4 limbs are present.

Fifth event - Week 8 - All systems are developing, bone, and facial features. Important because bone is starting to form to protect organs and systems that are developing. Becoming someone unique with facial features starting to be noticeable. See illustration.**

Sixth event - Weeks 10 and 11 - All systems are functioning. Important because the baby starts to "breathe" amniotic fluid and helps lungs develop.

Seventh event - Week 12 and 14 - baby can feel pain, heart is pumping well. I feel this stage is important because the baby can feel and his own heart is pumping several quarts of blood a day.

See illustration.**

Eighth event - Month 4 -Skeleton, gender, hair. Knowing the skeleton is developing by being able to see it at this stage. To a mom it is sometimes important for her to know gender and to see hair growing on their little heads. See illustration.*

Ninth event - 5-6 months - Heartbeat is heard, baby grasps things and protective coating forms. For a mom there is nothing better than hearing the baby's heartbeat for the first time and watching the baby hold things in the womb. Also, the protective coating, which is the vernix, helps protect delicate skin from the amniotic fluid. See illustration.**

Tenth event - 7-9 months - Baby is almost ready. Here it is important to know that the eyes open and close, uses 4 out of 5 senses, relate to the mood of the mother, immune system is forming and getting stronger, the heart pumps about 300 gallons of blood per day. To know that the "thing" growing inside the womb is a little person ready to come and meet the world.
See illustration.**

This was a fairly easy lab, but every website I looked at had things a little different. It was extremely hard to tell what I thought were the most significant events are and some of them I took from a moms point of view. For example, knowing the heart beats, and there are fingers, toes, arms, and legs. Gender is also important, although I never found out what the gender was of my babies until they were born. I think every stage from day 1 is equally important in development because it all benefits a final result, a baby.

*http://www.medicinenet.com/fetal-development-pictures-slideshow/article.htm

**http://www.nrlc.org/abortion/facts/fetaldevelopment.html

COMPENDIUM REVIEW # 1 FOR UNIT # 4

2008-07-15T20:02:00.000-07:00

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 16 - REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

1. Human Life Cycle

a. Mitosis and Meiosis

2. Male Reproductive System

a. Orgasm

b. Testes

c. Hormonal regulation

3. Female Reproductive System

a. Genital tract

b. External genitals

c. Orgasm

4. Female Hormone Levels

a. Ovarian cycle - non pregnant

b. Estrogen and progesterone

c. Uterine cycle - non pregnant

d. Fertilization and pregnancy

5. Control of Reproduction

a. Birth control

b. Fertilization and pregnancy

c. Infertility

6. Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)

a. Caused by virus

b. Caused by bacteria

c. Two other infections

CHAPTER 17 - DEVELOPMENT AND AGING

7. Fertilization

a. Steps

8. Pre-embryonic Development

a. Processes

b. Extraembryonic Membranes

c. Stages

9. Fetal Development

a. Events

b. Development of male and female sex genitals

10. Pregnancy and Birth

a. Birth

b. Stage 1

c. Stage 2

d. Stage 3

11. Development After Birth

a. Hypothesis of aging

b. Effects of age

CHAPTER 16 - REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

HUMAN LIFE CYCLE

In our human life cycle 2 types of cell division is required. Mitosis and Meiosis.

Mitosis is growth and repair of tissues.

Meiosis is gamete production.

MALE PRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The external genitals of males are the penis and the scrotum.

Spermatogenisis is production of sperm in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. Mature sperm is stored in the epididymides. Sperm pass from the vasa deferentia to the urethra. The seminal vesicles, the prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands add fluids to the sperm. These are referred to as semen and seminal fluid. Orgasm in males results in ejaculation of semen from the penis.

See illustration.*

The hypothalamus, the anterior pituitary and the testes regulate hormones, they maintain a fairly constant level of testosterone. See illustration.*

FSH form the anterior pituitary promotes spermatogenesis.

LH from the anterior pituitary promotes testosterone production by interstitial cells.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Oogenesis occurring within the ovaries typically produces one mature follicle each month.

The follicle releases an egg that enters an oviduct. Oviducts lead to the uterus, where implantation and development occur.

The external female genital area includes the vaginal opening, the clitoris, the labia minora and the labia majora. The vagina is the organ of sexual intercourse and the birth canal.

See illustration.*

Orgasm in females culminates in uterine and oviduct contractions.

FEMALE HORMONE LEVELS

Ovarian Cycle: Non-pregnant
The hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary control hormones in the ovarian cycle.

During first half of cycle, FSH from the anterior pituitary causes maturation of a follicle that secretes estrogen and progesterone. After ovulation and during the cycle's second half, LH from the anterior pituitary converts the follicle into the corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone and some estrogen.

Uterine Cycle: Non-pregnant

First of all, estrogen and progesterone regulate the uterine cycle. Estrogen causes the endometrium to rebuild. Ovulation occurs on day 14 of a 28 day cycle. See illustration.*

Progesterone produced by the corpus luteum causes the endometrium to thicken and become secretory.

A low level of hormones causes the endometrium to break down as menstruation occurs.

Fertilization and Pregnancy
If fertilization takes place, the embryo implants itself in the thickened endometrium.
The corpus luteum is maintained because of HCG production by the placenta, and therefore, progesterone production does not cease. Menstruation usually does not occur during pregnancy.

CONTROL OF REPRODUCTION

There are numerous birth control methods and devices are available. A few include: birth control pill, diaphragm, and condoms. Effectiveness varies.

Here in this illustration it shows two surgical ways of birth control.*

Infertility is the failure of a couple to achieve pregnancy after one year of regular, unprotected intercourse. Infertility can be caused by low sperm count and/or a large proportion of abnormal sperm. Infertility in females can be caused by being overweight, or due to pelvic inflammatory disease and endometriosis.

There are assisted reproductive technologies like: artificial insemination by donor (AID), gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT), and intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI).

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES

STDs are caused by viruses, bacteria, protists, fungi, and animals.

STDs caused by viruses include: HIV, genital warts, genital herpes, hepatitis.

STDs caused by bacteria include: chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis.

Two other infections include: bacterial vaginosis, and trichomoniasis.

CHAPTER 17 - DEVELOPMENT AND AGING

FERTILIZATION

Fertilization is the union of a sperm and egg to form a zygote, the first cell of the new individual. The acrosome of a sperm releases enzymes that digest a pathway for the sperm through the zona pellucida. The sperm nucleus enters the egg and fuses with the egg nucleus. See illustration.*

PRE-EMBRYONIC AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

Cleavage, growth, morphogenesis and differentiation are the processes of development.

Cleavage is immediately after fertilization, the zygote begins to divide.
Growth - during embryonic development, cell division is accompanied by an increase in size of the daughter cells.

Morphogenesis refers to the shaping of the embryo and is first evident when certain cells are seen to move, or migrate, in relation to other cells. These movements, the emvbryo begins to assume various shapes.

Differentiation is when cells take on a specific structure and function, differentiation occurs. The first system to become visibly differentiated is the nervous system.

The extraembryonic membranes, chorion, allantois, yolk sac, and amnion, function in internal development.

STAGE DEVELOPMENT

Pre-embryonic development encompasses the events of the first week. See illustration.*

Embryoinc development begins with the second week and lasts until the end of the second month of development. In this stage the major event called gastrulation starts, turns the inner cell mass into the embryonic disk. This is where 3 primary germ layers are formed. See illustration.*

Third week - the nervous system is the first system to develop and the heart starts to develop.

Fourth week and fifth weeks - blood vessels become umbilical blood vessels. Umbilical cord is fully fored. Limb buds appear. 5th week head enlarges, and sense organs become more prominent. See illustration.*

Sixth through eight weeks - Form is easily recognizable as a human being. brain development, head achieves its normal relationship with the body, nervous system is developed enough to permit reflex actions, 38 mm long at end of this period and weighs no more than an aspirin tablet, all organ systems have been established.

FETAL DEVELOPMENT

The umbilical cord stretches between the placenta and the fetus. It is the lifeline of the fetus because it contains the umbilical arteries and vein. See illustration.*

Third and fourth month - the skeleton is becoming ossified. The sex of the fetus becomes distinguishable. If an SRY gene is present, testes and male genitals develop. If not, ovaries and female genitals develop. See illustration.*

Fifth through the ninth months - the fetus continues to grow and to gain weight.

PREGNANCY AND BIRTH

Major changes take place in the mother's body during pregnancy.

Weight gain occurs as the uterus occupies most of the abdominal cavity. Many complaints, such as constipation, heartburn, darkening of certain skin areas, and pregnancy- induced diabetes, are due to the presence of placental hormones.

During birth, a positive feedback mechanism that involves uterine contractions and oxytocin explains the onset and continuation of labor.

During stage 1 of birth the cervix dilates.

During stage 2 of birth the child is born.

During stage 3 of birth the afterbirth is expelled.

DEVELOPMENT AFTER BIRTH

Development after birth consists of infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.

Aging encompasses progressive changes from about age 20 on that contribute to an increased risk of infirmity, disease and death.

Aging may have a genetic basis, may be due to changes that affect the whole body, and may be due to extrinsic factors(diet and exercise)

Deterioration of organ systems can possibly be prevented or reduced in part by utilizing good health habits.

*http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/classware/selfstudy.do?isbn=0072986867

EXERCISE

2008-07-12T00:41:00.000-07:00

I do not think we will find anybody that says excercise is not good for you. For optimal health, we all know, even if we do not want to admit it, exercise is the way to go. It helps keep diabetes at bay, keeps down blood pressure, helps us keep lean muscles, our bones strong and overall to feel good. Yes, there are many things exercise does for us and many more that can be listed, but what keeps, what seems to be the majority, of our society from doing it?

Obesity has become so prevalent in our "world" now that our children seem to be suffering the most from it. Having the highest obesity rate among kids is nothing to be proud about. We should never have to put our kids on diets. Our society has changed so much that we pass on "laziness" to our kids. I don't mean lazy by just sitting around the couch all day. Who has time for that anyway? Not using our time as wisely as it could be and teaching a healthy lifestyle, healthy eating and exercise.

The number 1 excuse for no exercise is "I don't have time" to exercise or eat healthy. Our lives have become so filled with things to do and errands to run. We overextend ourselves and then we have no time to take care of ourselves which should involve excercise.

I think that all of us, including myself, need to slow down in life. Things change all the time and we need to enjoy it. Exercise doesn't need to be sweating in the gym for hours, it could be just a walk after dinner with the family, or a game of soccer in the yard. Oh yes, what it would be like to have the energy of a ten year old. I feel exercise can restore some of that energy. Our schools are trying to instill the importance of exercise in our kids for the next generation and I think we should follow their lead by acting upon what they are teaching them and to know how great exercise really is. FUN!!!! If it is not fun you could be doing something wrong. Restore the fun and life. Go for a walk! Lets keep major diseases under control with a little exercise.

LAB PROJECT- MUSCLE FUNCTION

2008-07-12T00:10:00.000-07:00

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON MUSCLE ACTION
Temperature Number of fists
Normal 40
Ice water 39
Apparently the cold slowed down the muscle a little bit here. It may turn out different depending on who is making the fists. My husband actually did this here and it didn’t hinder him to much. He said that when he started making fists after the cold water the movement quickly warmed his hand back up to make fists easier.

EFFECT OF FATIGUE

Trial - #of squeezes in 20 seconds
1 - 37
2 - 36
3 - 35
4 - 31
5 - 28
6 - 27
7 - 25
8 - 22
9 - 20
Just a note, my husband hated this lab. Especially after he understood what he was supposed to do.

ANALYSIS OF DATA:
1. What are the three changes you observed in a muscle while it is working (contracted)?
2. What effect did the cold temperature have on the action of your hand muscles? Explain.
3. In Figure 3, make a line graph of your results of the fatigue experiment. Be sure to fill in the values on the vertical axis.
4. What effect did fatigue have on the action of your hand muscles? Explain.

Answers to questions above.
1. The movement and the difference in the firmness of the muscle, it fatigues faster.
2. At first, it slowed them down, but upon resuming movement or exercise the muscle seemed to warm up fairly quickly.
3. No graph required.
4. After the muscle started getting fatigued it was hard to move it as fast as initially started. It was also hard to keep the same hard grip and intensity as when the exercise was started.

When we get cold or tired I think that it takes our bodies longer to do something. With the ice water, everything in his hand got cold. When he was doing the exercise the blood pumps a little slower and the muscle fiber is a little slower to react. But when the blood started getting through there and warming things up everything started getting back to normal and to a regular tempo. In whole, when I get tired I don't want to move and certainly don't want to make my muscles move. Now, I didn't realize my muscles had to do so much to move and now when they tell me "I am tired" I am going to let them relax a little longer.

LAB PROJECT - HUMAN LIMB

2008-07-09T21:57:00.001-07:00

First of all, this model did not come out as elaborate as I would have liked. Anyway, I attempted a model of the human arm. The parts you see are the ball joint, bicep, tricep, tendons, hinge joint and the bone. The humerus is the bone attached to the ball joint here in this picture. The ulna and radius would make up the bottom two bones, shown as one in picture, and attached by a hinge joint at the elbow. The bicep and the tricep are the two muscles which help in arm movement.

In this picture, it shows the myosin, actin, and cross bridge. The whole picture is a representation of a sarcomere. It is at its relaxed state here.

In this picture are all the same components from above, but the sarcomere is shown in contracted state, which is what happens in a muscle.

In this picture is one myofibril, it is showed with the sarcolemma covering, which would be around the unit as a whole. It also represents T tubule and sarcoplasmic reticulum, which stores the calcium.

In this picture, and I don't know why it turned sideways, is the start of the function of Ca2+.

In this picture it shows Ca2+ binding to troponin, and also exposes mysosin binding sites.

Here is a picture of an action potential with axon covered by myelin sheath.

To sum everything up a little, when muscles are stimulated impulses travel down a T tubule and calcium is released by the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Muscle fiber contracts as the sarcomere shortens. Actin filaments slide past myosin. The movement of actin filaments in relation to myosin filaments is called the sliding filament model of muscle contraction. The myosin, however, is the one that does all the work. Myosin breaks down ATP, and their cross bridges pull in actin filaments toward center of the sarcomere.

Hopefully this all makes a little sense to you and I hope the pictures explained a lot. It is amazing the details are muscles go through just to move. It brings to mind the muscles in my wrists right now, and how they endure one position for so long. Our bodies are just amazing.

LEECH NEURONS LAB

2008-07-09T18:20:00.000-07:00

Here is this picture of the manipulator with oscillope trace.

Here is the neuron with dye under ultraviolet light. Look closely and you can see the shape of a sensory neuron.

Here in this illustration is the neuron being probed by a feather, a probe, and forceps to see any reaction. The neuron tested here is identified as a P cell.

1. Electrode measuring is a way to record the activities of neurons.

2. Leeches were used because they have simpler systems, that are easier to understand and they have a simple nervous system. Which obeys many of the same rules as a complex system like ours.

3. The difference between a sensory and motor neuron is: sensory takes nerve impulses from sensory receptor to the CNS. Motor takes nerve impulses away from the CNS to an effector.

4. Yes, doesn't anything with nerves experience it? Pain is a sensory experience that describes an unpleasant awareness of a noxious(harmful) stimulus or bodily harm.

5. The 2 most interesting things. Well it was hard to pick 2. Dissecting the leech was interesting and probing cells and testing them.

6. No, I didn't find anything confusing about this lab or anything I didn't like.

COMPENDIUM REVIEW #2 FOR UNIT #3

2008-07-05T12:36:00.000-07:00

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 11- SKELETAL
1. Overview of the skeletal system
a. Functions
b. Anatomy of a long bone
2. Bone growth, remodeling and repair
a. Bone development and growth
b. Bone remodeling and its role in homeostasis
c. Bone repair
3. Bones of Axial Skeleton
a. Skull
b. Hyoid
c. Rib cage
4. Bones of Appendicular Skeleton
a. Pectoral girdle and upper limb
b. Pectoral girdle and lower limb
5. Articulations
a. Movements

CHAPTER 12 - MUSCULAR SYSTEM

6. Overview of Muscular System
a. Types
b. Functions
c. Skeletal
d. Names and actions
7. Skeletal Muscle and Fiber Contractions
a. Muscle fibers
b. Control of muscle fiber
8. Whole Muscle Contraction
a. Muscles have motor units
b. Energy for contraction
c. Fast twitch and slow twitch muscle fibers
d. Delayed onset soreness
9. Muscle disorders
a. Common conditions
b. Muscular diseases
10. Homeostasis
a. Protect
b. Store and release

CHAPTER 11 - SKELETAL SYSTEM

OVERVIEW OF SKELETAL SYSTEM
The skeleton supports the body, protects soft body parts, produces blood cells, stores minerals
and fat and along with muscles, permits flexible body movement.

In the anatomy of a long bone, the hyaline cartilage covers the ends of the bone. The periosteum covers the rest of the bone. Spongy bone in in the epiphyses. Yellow bone marrow is in the medullary cavity of the diaphysis and compact bone makes up the wall of the diaphysis.
See illustration.*

BONE GROWTH, REMODELING, AND REPAIR

Cells involved in growth, remodeling and repair of bone are: osteoblasts, which are bone forming cells, osteocytes, which are mature bone cells derived from osteoblasts and osteoclasts, which break down and absorb bone.

For bone growth, intramembranous ossification is when bones develop between sheets of fibrous connective tissue. For example, flat bones such as bones of the skull.

Endochondral ossification: cartilaginous models of the bones are replaced by calcified bone matrix. See illustration.*

Bone growth is affected by vitamin D, growth hormone, and sex hormones.

Bone remodeling is the renewal of bone. Osteoclasts break down bone and osteoblasts re-form bone. Some bone is recycled each year. Bone recycling allows the body to regulate blood calcium.

Repair of a fracture requires 4 steps: hematoma formation, fibrocrtilaginous callus, bony callus and remodeling.

BONES OF THE AXIAL SKELETON
The axial skeleton consists of the skull, the hyoid bone, the vetebral column and the rib cage.
The skull is formed by the cranium, which protects the brain and the facial bones. The cranium's major bones are: frontal bone, parietal bones, occipital bone, and the temporal bones.

The hyoid bone anchors the tongue and is the site of attachment of muscles involved with swallowing. The vetebral column is composed of vertebrae separated by shock-absorbing disks, which make the column flexible. It supports the head and trunk, protects the spinal cord, and is a site for muscle attachment. The rib cage is composed of the thoracic vertabrae, ribs, costal cartilages, and sternum. It protects the heart and lungs.

BONES OF THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON

The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the pectoral girdles, upper limbs, pelvic girdle and lower limbs.

The pectoral girdles and uppper limbs are adapted for flexibility.
The pelvic girdle and the lower limbs are adapted for supporting weight: the femur is the longest and strongest bone in the body.

Here is an illustration of all 206 bones in our bodies.*

ARTICULATIONS

Bones are joined at joints. There are 3 types of joints.

1. Fibrous joints ( such as the sutures of the cranium) are immovable.
2. Cartilaginous joints ( such as those between the ribs and sternum and the pubic symphysis) are slightly movable.

3. Synovial joints ( which have a synovial membrane) are freely movable. See illustration.*

CHAPTER 12 - MUSCULAR SYSTEM

OVERVIEW OF MUSCULAR SYSTEM

There are 3 types of muscle tissue. 1. Smooth muscle is involuntary and occurs in walls of internal organs. 2. Cardiac muscle is involuntary and occurs in walls of the heart. 3. Skeletal muscle voluntary, contains bundles of muscle fibers called fascicles, and is usually attached by tendons to the skeleton. The functions of skeletal muscles are: help maintain posture, provide movement and heat, and protect underlying organs. See illustration.*

Muscles are named for their size, shape, location, direction of fibers, number of attachments, and action. When achieving movement, some muscles are prime movers, some are synergists, and others are antagonists.

SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBER CONTRACTION

Muscle fibers contain myofibrils. Myofibrils contain actin and myosin filaments. Muscle contraction occurs when sarcomeres shorten and actin filaments slide past myosin filaments.
See illustration.*

- nerve impulses travel down motor neurons and stimulate muscle fibers at neuromuscular junctions.

- the sarcolemma of a muscle fiber forms T tubules that almost touch the sarcoplasmic reticulum, which stores CA ions.

- when CA ions are released into muscle fibers, actin filaments slide past myosin filaments.

- at a neuromuscular junction, synaptic vesicles release acetylcholine, which diffuses across the synaptic cleft.

- acetylcholine(Ach) is received by the sarcolemma, impulses begin and lead to the release of CA.

- CA ions bind to troponin, exposing myosin binding sites.

- myosin filaments break down ATP and attach to actin filaments, forming cross-bridges.

- when ADP and P are released, cross-bridges change their positions.

- this pulls actin filaments to the center of a sarcomere.

WHOLE MUSCLE CONTRATION
Muscles have motor units: several fibers under the control of a single motor axon. Motor unit contraction is described in terms of a muscle twitch, summation and tetanus. The strength of muscle contraction varies according to recruitment of motor units.

In the body, a continuous slight tension is maintained by muscle motor units that take turns contracting.
For energy, a muscle fiber has 3 ways to acquire ATP for muscle contraction.

1. Creatine phosphate transfers a phosphate to ADP, and ATP results. This CP pathway is the most rapid.

2. Fermentation also produces ATP quickly. Fermentation is associated with an oxygen debt because oxygen is needed to metabolize the lactate that accumulates.

3. Cellular respiration provides most of the muscle's ATP, but takes longer because much of the glucose and oxygen must be transported in blood to mitochondria. Cellular respiration occurs during aerobic exercise and burns fatty acids in addition to glucose.

Fast twitch muscle fibers are for sports like weight training. These rely on anaerobic means of acquiring ATP. Have few mitochondria and myoglobin, but motor units contain more muscle fibers and are known for explosive power, but fatigue quickly.

Slow twitch muscle fibers are for sports like running or swimming. These rely on aerobic respiration to acquire ATP. Have a plentiful supply of mitochondria and myoglobin, which gives them dark color. See illustration.*

MUSCULAR DISORDERS

Muscular disorders include spasms and injuries, as well as diseases such as muscular dystrophy and myasthenia gravis.

HOMEOSTATSIS

The muscles and bones produce movement and protect body parts, the bones produce red blood cells and are involved in the regulation of blood calcium levels. The muscles also produce the heat that gives us a constant body temperature. In this illustration it shows are the skeletal and muscular systems interact with other body systems.*

*http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/classware/selfstudy.do?isbn=0072986867

COMPENDIUM REVIEW # 1 FOR UNIT # 3

2008-07-03T20:19:00.000-07:00

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 13

NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. Overview of the Nervous System
a. Nervous tissue
b. Neuron structure
c. Myelin sheath
d. Propagation of an action potential
f. Synapse
2. Central Nervous System
a. Spinal cord
b. The brain
3. Limbic System and Higher Mental Functions
a. Limbic system
b. Higher mental funtions
4. The Peripheral Nervous System
a. Somatic system
b. Autonomic system
c. Somatic versus the autonomic system
5. Drug Abuse
a. Alcohol
b. Nicotine
c. Cocaine
d. Methamphetamine
e. Heroin
f. Marijuana
CHAPTER 14
SENSES
6. Sensory Receptors and Sensations
a. Types of sensory receptors
b. How sensations occurs
7. Proprioceprors and Cutaneous Receptors
a. Proprioceptors
b. Cutaneous receptors
c. pain receptors
8. Senses of Taste and Smell
a. Sense of taste
b. Sense of smell
9. Sense of Vision
a. Anatomy and physiology of the eye
b. Abnormalities of the eye
10. Sense of Hearing
a. Anatomy and physiology of the ear
11. Sense of Equilbrium
a. Rotational equilibrium pathway
b. Gravitational equilibrium pathway

CHAPTER 13

OVERVIEW OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system(CNS) and the peripheral nervous system(PNS). It has 3 functions: 1. reception and input, 2. integration of data, 3. generates motor input.
Nervous tissue contains 2 types of cells: neurons and neuroglia. Neurons transmit nerve impulses and Neuroglia nourish and support neurons.

A neuron is composed of dendrites, a cell body and an axon. There are 3 types of neurons: 1. Sensory neurons which take nerve impulses form sensory receptors to the CNS. 2. Interneurons occur within the CNS and 3. Motor neurons take nerve impulses from the CNS to effectors.

See illustration.*

The myelin sheath is the covering over long axons.

Nerve impulse includes resting potential and action potential. Resting potential is more sodium ions (Na+) outside the axon and more potassium (K+) inside the axon. The axon does not conduct and impulse.

Action potential is a change in polarity across the axonal membrane as a nerve impulse occurs: when Na+ gates open, Na+ moves to the inside of the axon, and depolarization occurs. When K+ gates open and K+ moves to outside the axon, a repolarization occurs. See illustration.*

A synapse is junction between neurons consisting of the presynaptic (axon) membrane, the synaptic cleft, and postsynaptic (usually dendrite) membrane.

When a neurotransmitter is released into a synaptic cleft, transmission of a nerve impulse occurs.

Neurotransmitter binds to receptors in receiving membrane and causes excitation or inhibition.

Integration is the summing of excitatory and inhibitory signals.

See illustration.*

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The CNS receives and integrates sensory input and formulates motor output. The CNS consists of the spinal cord and brain.
The spinal cord is the nerve cord that is continuous with the base of the brain plus the vertebral column that protects the nerve cord.
A cross section of the spinal cord shows a central canal, gray matter and white matter. Gray matter contains neuron cell bodies. White matter consists of myelinated axons that occur in tracts.

It conducts to and from the brain and carries out reflex actions.

The brain has 4 major parts, the cerebrum, the diencephalon, the cerebellum and the brain stem. It also has 4 ventricles, 2 lateral ventricals, the 3rd ventrical and the 4th ventrical.

See illustration.*

The cerebrum has two cerebral hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum. Sensation, reasoning, learning and memory, and language and speech take place in the cerebrum. the cerebral cortex covers the cerebrum. The cerebral cortex of each cerebral hemisphere has four lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal.

The frontal lobe sends out motor commands to lower brain centers, which pass them on to motor neurons. The parietal lobe receives sensory information from lower brain centers in communication with sensory neurons. Association areas are located in all lobes.

See illustration.*

The Diencephalon includes the hypothalmus which controls homeostasis. the thalamus sends sensory input on to the cerebrum.

The cerebellum coordinates skeletal muscle contractions.

The brain stem, the medulla oblongata and the pons have centers for breathing and the heartbeat.

THE LIMBIC SYSTEM AND HIGHER MENTAL FUNCTIONS

The limbic system, which lies deep in the brain, is involved in determining emotions.
The amygdala determines when a situation deserves the emotion we call "fear."
The hippocampus is particularly involved in storing and retrieving memories.

THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The PNS only contains only nerves and ganglia. Cranial nerves take impulses to and from the brain. Spinal nerves take impulses to and from the spinal cord. The PNS is divided into the somatic systema and autonomic system.

The somatic system serves the skin, skeletal muscles, and tendons. Some actions are due to reflexes, which are automatic and involuntary. Other actions are voluntary, and originate in the cerebral cortex.
The autonomic system is divided into 2 divisions which are sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division. The Sympathetic Division are responses that occur during times of stress. The Parasympathetic Division are responses that occur during times of relaxation. The actions in these divisions are involuntary and automatic. These divisions also innervate internal organs. There are two neurons and one ganglion are utilized for each impulse.

See illustration.*

DRUG ABUSE

Drugs that are commonly abused include alcohol, nicotine, cocaine, methamphetamine, heroin and marijuana.
The effects of alcohol and heroin on the CNS is a depressant. Nicotine, cocaine, and methamphetamine all acts as a stimulant. Marijuana acts as a psychoactive, it creates a euphoria.

CHAPTER 14

SENSES

SENSORY RECEPTORS AND SENSATIONS

There are 4 types of sensory receptors: chemoreceptors ( taste and smell), photoreceptors (vision), mechanoreceptors ( hearing, rotational and gravitational equilibrium) , and thermoreceptors(located in hypothalamus and skin).

Sensory receptors initiate nerve impulses that are transmitted to the spinal cord and/or brain.

Sensation occurs when nerve impulses reach the cerebral cortex. Perception is an interpretation of sensations.

See illustration.*

PROPRIOCEPTORS AND CUTANEOUS RECEPTORS

Proprioceptors are mechanoreceptors involved in reflex actions and help maintain equilibrium and posture.

Cutaneous receptors are found in the skin and are for touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.

SENSES OF TASTE AND SMELL

Taste and smell are chemoreceptors. They are stimulated by molecules in the environment.

Sense of taste: Microvilli of taste cells have receptor proteins for molecules that cause the brain to distinguish sweet, sour, salty, and bitter tastes.

Sense of smell: The cilia of olfactory cells have receptor proteins for molecules that cause the brain to distinguish odors.

SENSE OF VISION

Vision depends on the eye, the optic nerve, and the visual areas of the cerebral cortex.

The eye has 3 layers. The sclera ( outer layer), the choroid ( middle layer), and the retina ( inner layer).

See illustration for the in depth anatomy of the eye.*

In this illustration it gives the parts of the eye and what it does.*

The lens of the eye brings the light rays to focus on the retina. To see a close object, visual accommodation occurs as the lens rounds up.
The visual pathway to the brain begins when light strikes photorecptors in the retina. The optic nerves carry nerve impulses from the eyes to the optic chiasma, then pass through the thalamus before reaching the primary vision area in the occipital lobe of the brain.

Some abnormalities of the eye are color blindness and a misshapen eyeball.

SENSE OF HEARING

Hearing depends on the ear, the cochlear nerve and the auditory areas of the cerebral cortex.

This illustration gives all the parts of the ear.*

The ear has 3 parts. In the outer ear, the pinna and the auditory canal direct sound waves to the middle ear. In the middle ear, the tympanic membrane and ossicles amplify sound waves. In the inner ear, the semicircular canals detect rotational equilibrium; the utricle and saccule detect gravitational equilibrium; and the cochlea houses the spiral organ, which contains mechanoreceptors for hearing.

Auditory pathway to the brain begins when the outer ear receives and the middle ear amplifies sound waves that then strike the oval window membrane.

The mechanoreceptors for hearing are hair cells on the basilar membrane of the spiral organ. Nerve impulses begin in the cochlear nerve and are carried to the primary auditory area in the temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex.

SENSE OF EQUILIBRIUM

The ear also contains mechanoreceptors for equilibrium.

Rotational equilibrium pathway is when the hair cells in the semicircular canals detect rotational and/or angular movement of the head.

Gravitational equilibrium Pathway is when the hair cells in the utricle and saccule detect head movement in the vertical or horizontal planes.

*http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/classware/selfstudy.do?isbn=0072986867

SELF AND UNIT EVALUATION

2008-06-30T10:33:00.000-07:00

The three aspects I am most proud of would be my compendium reviews and the exercise physiology lab.
Two aspects I would improve is taking more time on the quizzes and the food lab.
My overall grade should still average from a high B to a low A.
I could perform better the next time by merely being done on time.

UNIT EVALUATION

I felt most engaged by getting involved in taking my BP and pulse. I actually made all my husbands friends take their BP the other night after having a few beers. It was fun.
I don't think I really felt distanced from the course.
The PowerPoint presentations are helpful along with some website links.
Their were no confusing aspects from teacher or students.
I don't really think I was surprised by much. (Although I have been monitoring my BP for a couple of months and this unit really helped.)

WHAT IS FOOD? ESSAY

2008-06-30T10:10:00.000-07:00

Today, food takes on a whole new meaning than it did, I don't know 50 years or so ago. Now we have things that are pre-packaged for convenience, or already cooked just needs to be warmed. Nobody, or few people, wonders where it is from or how it got here to the table. The obesity rate seems to be rising each and every year, we have drive-thrus that make it even easier and sometimes a lot unhealthier.

First of all, I love food. And yes I know how busy life can be and how awesome it is to have a lot of convenience in our lives like McDonalds for instance. So many things have changed over many, many years. Generations ago you never heard of "eating out" or TV dinners. Everything was fresh homemade and much better for you. There actually was a time when people grew or raised everything needed to make a good hearty meal. Where was obesity then? When people had to grow their own food they got a lot more exercise and pleasure growing their own sustenance. You took greater pride in "I grew that". Even today, in our own gardens do we not take greater pride in doing it ourselves.

Today, we have all kinds of processed foods, which yes are hard to get away from once you start using them. Whole foods are a lot healthier and taste a lot better. I am a busy mom of three and I know how life is so busy you don't think of some of the things that you are feeding your body. Reading the short article by Slow foods USA was awesome. It talked about taking pleasure in food, enjoying the taste, knowledge of where it came from and choice, where we get it. I will be honest I don't search out the farmers markets where I live, and sometimes they seem more pricey and it is not CONVENIENT. (There is that word again)

After reading some of these food articles it gave me new perspective on some of their ideas. Searching out farmers markets, just knowing where does my food come from. Is is healthy, does it taste good, and did I enjoy it? If we as a society take pride in what we put on the table we will become healthier and happier and our bodies will love us for it.

EXCERCISE PHYSIOLOGY LAB

2008-06-30T08:20:00.000-07:00

In the following lab we will be testing metabolic rate and the effects of exercise on different readings. We will measure pulse rate, respiration rate, systolic and diastolic blood pressure. The initial readings will be at rest and then we will read them after activities. These activities will include being at work, meditating at home and a brisk 6 minute walk.

My hypothesis for these tests are as follows. In both being at work and the 6 minute walk all metabolic readings will increase. In the meditating, the metabolic readings will either stay the same or hopefully, drop even if ever so slightly.

The methods and materials being used to test the metabolic rates are: Taking a radial pulse, using a portable, automatic blood pressure machine, and just counting the chest as it rises and falls for respiration rate.

Here is a picture of the blood pressure machine used for all BP readings.

Here is an example on how to take a radial pulse.

In the following pictures is my daughter demonstrating the activities, if I wanted somewhat good pictures this was the best way for me to go. You can also tell she looks sooo excited to be doing this. I do not have a picture of me at work but I will describe it to you. I am a CNA and this particular day I worked on the special care unit with about 20 residents and there was myself and one other person on the floor that day because other CNA's had called in sick. Hopefully, you understand a little of what this is, it was very stressful!(my blood pressure shows it.)

This is Danielle demonstrating the walking activity, she is very excited about it.

This is Danielle trying to meditate.

In the following graphs are all the results of this lab.

In the graph, there three at rest readings shown in blue and then the activities reading next to them. Work activity is in black, meditating is in red and walking is in green. The at rest reading before these individual colors are taken right before that certain activity.

This graph has respiration rate and it follows the same pattern as in the pulse rate graph.

This graph shows systolic rate, follow pattern as mentioned above.

This graph shows diastolic rate, follows pattern as mentioned above.

As for my hypothesis it was indeed correct. In the activity of going to work my blood pressure was 127/74 at rest and 140/80 after work. Pulse was 72 at rest and 84 after work. Respiration rates were 16 at rest 18 after work. While meditating my blood pressure was 127/74 at rest and 126/65 after meditating. Pulse was 72 at rest and 64 after meditating. Respiration rates were 16 at rest and 15 after meditating. While taking the brisk walk my blood pressure at rest was 112/74 and 131/77 after walking. Pulse was 82 at rest and 104 after walking. Respiration rate at rest was 16 and 20 after walking.

In conclusion, most activities will raise all the metabolic rate readings. If doing activities to relax and calm down all metabolic rates should drop a little or stay relatively the same. As you can see from my readings all metabolic rates went up in activities and drop slightly while relaxing to get the numbers back into a normal range. Increasing our metabolic rates gets our heart pumping and moving blood through our system a lot faster and helps our cells burn off calories and more fat etc. This is why people who are trying to diet need to exercise to increase their metabolism. Increasing our metabolic rates helps our bodies in lots of ways.

For some reason the pictures and text didn't want to cooperate, hope you get the idea!!

A DAY OF FOOD LAB

2008-06-29T15:38:00.001-07:00

Food diary for 1 day.

I wouldn't say that this is very healthy. Although there were some healthy choices it also lacked in a lot of places. I found the food list hard to use because it didn't have exactly some of the foods I was looking for like granola bars. I didn't have pb&j, it was actually peanut butter and honey sandwich. I think I also had 2 hot wings but didn't locate them on the site.

The things I would change about this days eating and probably everydays eating would be more fruit and veggies, and some protein. I also think that this kind of nutritional tracking is great especially for someone who is trying to get on the right track with a healthier lifestyle and possibly to drop some pounds. If we see what we are eating it helps to change and cut out the high calorie, high salt and fat items. It puts things in perspective and cuts out some of the counting work for us.

I didn't look at the other website the daily plate until after I was done with the other. It seems to be a neat website for somebody who is trying to get healthier and lose weight and it tracks your goals and everything that is needed to be successful. I may actually try this site.

BLOOD PRESSURE LAB

2008-06-28T21:54:00.000-07:00

Blood Pressure -
State a problem about the relationship of age and gender to blood pressure.
Depending on the age group and gender highly affects your chances of having hypertension. Obesity and family history are also related.
Use your knowledge about the heart and the circulatory system to make a hypothesis about how the average blood pressure for a group of people would be affected by manipulating the age and gender of the group members.
Unhealthy diets would affect this because older age groups have had a lifetime to eat bad, maybe drink alcohol and/or smoke. High salt diets and lack of excercise. Chances also increase if there is family history.
How will you use the investigation screen to test your hypothesis? What steps will you follow? What data will you record?
The screen will test 10 individuals at a time in different age and gender groups. Take everybody's BP, add up all diastolic and systolic separately and then average the numbers for that group. Also, take family and medical history from every individual.
Analyze the result of your experiment. Explain any patterns you observed.
Most individuals with high blood pressure had obesity, and family history and poor lifestyle. Younger individuals, however, showed no signs of hypertension. Maybe because they are young, more active, and have not had lifetime to make unhealthy food choices.
Did the result of your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not? Based on your experiment what conclusion can you draw about the relationship of age and gender to group blood pressure averages?
Yes, it showed that obesity and family history have huge impact. Other factors are poor diet and lack of excercise.
During the course of your experiment, did you obtain any blood pressure reading that were outside of the normal range for the group being tested? What did you notice on the medical charts for these individuals that might explain their high reading?
Yes, overweight, poor diet, lack of excercise, family history.
List risk factors associated with the hypertension. Based on your observation, which risk factor do you think is most closely associated with hypertension?
Obesity and family history. Other factors include poor diet, lack of activity, gender and age.
What effect might obesity have on blood pressure? Does obesity alone cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure? What other factors, in combination with obesity, might increase a person's risk for high blood pressure?
Obesity would seem to make the heart work harder to pump more blood. Yes obesity alone can be a risk for an indiviual to have high blood pressure but does not guarantee them to get high blood pressure. Other factors that increase a person's risk would be family history, high salt diet, age, and gender.

In the graph it shows the comparison between systolic and diastolic and what the average is in different age groups.

In this picture the table has the average numbers of systolic and diastolic broken up by age groups and gender.

This picture of the table is the same as above except its the end part. Couldn't get all of it in one screen.

Compendium Review # 2 for unit #2

2008-06-25T20:30:00.000-07:00

CHAPTER 8

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND NUTRITION

OVERVIEW OF DIGESTION

a. Ingestion, digestion, movement
b. Wall of digestive tract

FIRST PART OF DIGESTIVE TRACT

a. Mouth

b. Pharynx and Esophagus

THE STOMACH AND SMALL INTESTINE

a. Stomach

b. Small Intestine

c. Obesity

THREE ACCESSORY ORGANS AND REGULATION OF SECRETIONS

a. Three Accessory Organs

b. Secretions

THE LARGE INTESTINE AND DEFECATION

a. Functions

b. Disorders

NUTRITION AND WEIGHT CONTROL

a. Obesity
b. Classes
c. Minerals
d. Vitamins

e. Nutritious Meals
f. Eating disorders

OVERVIEW OF DIGESTION

The processes of digestion require ingestion, digestion, movement, absorption and elimination. See illustration at left.* All parts of the tract have four layers, the mucosa, sub mucosa, muscularis and serosa.

FIRST PART OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT

The mouth, the pharynx, and the esophagus are in the first part of the GI tract.

In the mouth, teeth chew the food and saliva contains salivary amylase for digesting starch, and the tongue forms a bolus for swallowing.

The air passage and food passages cross in the pharynx. When swallowing the air passage is blocked off by the soft palate and the epiglottis, food enters esophagus and peristalsis starts. The esophagus moves food to the stomach.

THE STOMACH AND SMALL INTESTINE

The stomach and small intestine complete the digestion of food.

The stomach expands and stores food, it mixes food with the acidic gastric juices. The duodenum of the small intestine receives bile from the liver and pancreatic juice from the pancreas. The pancreas produces enzymes that digest starch, protein, and fat. The intestinal enzymes finish the process of chemical digestion. Nutrient molecules are absorbed at the villi in the walls of the small intestine. The nutrients absorbed at the small intestine can affect our health. The intake of too much sugar or fat can result in obesity which can lead to diabetes or cardiovascular disease.

THREE ACCESSORY ORGANS AND REGULATION OF SECRETIONS

The three accessory organs that send secretions to the duodenum via ducts are the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder.

The pancreas produces pancreatic juice, that has digestive enzymes in it.

The liver produces bile, destroys old blood cells, detoxifies blood, stores iron, makes plasma proteins, stores glucose as glycogen, breaks down glycogen to glucose, produces urea and helps regulate blood cholesterol level.

The gallbladder stores bile. The secretions of digestive juices are controlled by the nervous system and by hormones. Gastrin is produced by the lower stomach. It stimulates upper stomach to secrete pepsin. Secretin and CCK produced by the duodenal wall stimulate the pancreas. This secretes its juices and the tells the gallbladder to release bile.

THE LARGE INTESTINE AND DEFECATION

The large intestine include the cecum, which is the blind end of the large intestine, the rectum and the anal canal.

The large intestine absorbs water, salts, and some vitamins, forms feces and carries out defecation.

Disorders of the large intestine include diverticulosis, irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease, polyps and cancer.

NUTRITION AND WEIGHT CONTROL

The nutrients released by the digestive process should provide us with adequate energy, essential amino acids and fatty acids and all necessary vitamins ad minerals.

Obesity is on the rise mainly for poor food choices or eating too much food. Obesity is associated with many illnesses like diabetes 2 and cardiovascular disease.

In this illustration*, it shows what to eat and what to minimize in order to have good health.

There are different classes of nutrients. 1. Carbohydrates, are necessary but simple sugars and refined starches cause a rapid release of insulin the can lead to diabetes type 2.

2. Proteins supply essential amino acids. 3. Lipids - unsaturated fatty acids, omega 3, are protective against cardiovascular disease - saturated fatty acids lead to plaque.

Vitamins and minerals are also required by the body in certain amounts.

Some eating disorders are, anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa.

Other abnormal eating practices are binge-eating disorder. Muscle dysmorphia is when one thinks their body is underdeveloped.

Eating healthy is a way to fight many diseases and to make it through our busy lives.

*http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/classware/selfstudy.do?isbn=0072986867

Compendium Review # 1 for unit 2

2008-06-19T17:32:00.000-07:00

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 5

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS

1. Overview of the Cardiovascular System
a. Functions and circulation

b. Lymphatic system

2. Types of Blood Vessels

a. Arteries
b. Capillaries
c. Veins
3. The Heart is a double pump
a. Passage of blood
b. Heartbeat
c. Electrocardiogram

4. Features of the Cardiovascular System

a. Pulse
b. Blood flow

5. Two Cardiovascular Pathways

a. Pulmonary Circuit
b. Systemic Circuit
6. Exchange at the Capillaries
7. Cardiovascular Disorders
a. Blood vessels
b. Heart

CHAPTER 6

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: BLOOD
8. Blood: An Overview
a. Functions

b. Composition
9. Red Blood Cells and Transport of Oxygen

a. Carry oxygen
b. Transport carbon dioxide
c. Bone marrow
d. Disorders
10. White Blood Cells and Defense against diseases
a. Types

b. Disorders

11. Platelets and Blood Clotting
a. Clotting
b. Disorders
12. Blood Types and Transfusions

a. blood groups

b. RH groups

13. Homeostasis

CHAPTER 7
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY

14. Microbes, Pathogens and You
a. Bacteria
b. Viruses
c. Prions
15. Lymphatic System
a. Vessels
b. Organs
16. Nonspecific Defenses

a. Barriers

b. Inflammatory Response

17. Specific Defenses
a. How defense works
18. Acquired Immunity
a. Active
b. Passive
19. Hypersensitivity Reaction
a. Allergies

b. Tissue Rejections

c. Disorders

AIDS SUPPLEMENT
20. Origin and Prevalence of HIV
21. Phases of HIV Infection
a. Category A
b. Category B

c. Category C

22. HIV Structure and Life Cycle

a. Life Cycle
b. Transmission and Prevention

c. Testing and Treatment

OVERVIEW OF THE CARDIOVASCULAR

Functions of the cardiovascular system include contractions of the heart generates blood pressure and moves blood, vessels transport the blood, exchanges at capillaries refreshes blood and tissue fluid, and the heart and blood vessels regulate blood flow. The lymphatic system is of assistance to the cardiovascular system. The lymphatic vessels collect excess tissue fluid and return it to the cardiovascular system.

THE TYPES OF BLOOD VESSELS

The arteries take blood away from the heart, they have the thickest walls, which allows them to withstand blood pressure. Capillaries are where exchange of substances occur. Veins take blood to the heart. Veins have weaker walls with valves that keep blood flowing in one direction. Illustration of the difference of an artery and a vein.*

THE HEART IS A DOUBLE PUMP
The major portion of the heart is the myocardium, which consists largely of cardiac muscle tissue. The pericardium is a thick, membranous sac that supports and protects the heart. The septum is the internal wall that separates the heart into right and left sides. Each side has an atrium (upper chamber) and ventricle (lower chamber). The illustration here shows the external anatomy of the heart.*

The next illustration* shows the internal anatomy of the heart and shows the passage of blood. Oxygen poor blood enters the right atrium through the superior and inferior vena cavas. The right atrium sends blood through the tricusppid valve to the right ventricle. The right ventricle sends blood through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary trunk. The trunk, carries oxygen poor blood and divides into two pulmonary arteries, which go to the lungs. Four pulmonary veins, which carry oxygen rich blood to the left atrium, which sens the blood through the bicuspid valve to left ventricle and that sends

blood through the aortic semilunar valve into the aorta to the body. This illustration* helps us "see" the heartbeat. The SA node (pacemaker) initiates the heartbeat, the AV node conveys stimulus to the ventricles, the heart sound "lub-dup" are due to closing of the atrioventricular valves, followed by closing of the semilunar valves.

An elecocardiogram (ECG) is a recording of the electrical changes that occur in myocardium during a cardiac cycle.

FEATURES OF THE CARDIOVASCULAR

The surge of blood entering arteries can be felt as our pulse because of the rhythmic expansion and recoil of an arterial wall.

This illustration* addresses blood pressure. Blood pressure is the pressure of blood against the wall of a blood vessel. A sphygmomanometer is used to measure blood pressure. The systolic pressure is the highest arterial pressure and the diastolic pressure occurs while the heart ventricles are relaxing. Blood pressure accounts for the flow of blood in the arteries. In the capillaries blood flow is slow and it is where exchange of nutrients and wastes in the tissues occurs. In the veins, blood flow returns to the heart.

TWO CARDIOVASCULAR PATHWAYS

The pulmonary circuit, exchange of gases, blood travels to and from the lungs.

The systemic circuit, exchanges with tissue fluid, the aorta divides into blood vessels that serve the body's organs and cells. As shown in this illustration.*

EXCHANGE AT THE CAPILLARIES

Two forces primarily control movement of fluid through the capillary wall. Blood pressure causes water to move from capillary to tissue fluid. Osmotic pressure tends to cause water to move in the opposite direction. Both of these are shown in the illustration shown here.*

CARDIOVASCULAR DISORDERS

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death in the Western countries.

Hypertension and atherosclerosis can lead to stroke, heart attack or aneurysm.

Healthy diet, regular exercise, maintaining proper weight, and not smoking help protect against cardiovascular disease.

CHAPTER 6

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: BLOOD

BLOOD: AN OVERVIEW

The functions of blood are: 1. the transport of oxygen, hormones, and nutrients to cells
2. to transport carbon dioxide, and other wastes from cells 3. to fight infection and has various regulatory functions 4. maintain blood pressure 5. regulates body temperature 6. keeps the pH of body fluids within normal limits. These help maintain homeostasis.
Blood also has 2 components: formed elements and plasma. Formed elements are red and white blood cells and platelets. Plasma is 91% water. Its proteins, produced by the liver, maintain osmotic pressure, help regulate pH and transport molecules. For example some functions of the plasma are to transport immunity and blood clotting.

RED BLOOD CELLS AND TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN

The illustration to the left show the structure of red blood cells.*

Red blood cell production is controlled by the oxygen concentration of the blood. When oxygen decreases, the kidneys increase their production of erythropoietin, and more red blood cells are produced. These are produced in the bone marrow.

Blood doping is any method of increasing the normal supply of RBC'S for the purpose of delivering oxygen more efficiently, reducing fatigue, and giving athletes a competitive edge.
Disorders involving red blood cells include anemia, hemolysis (rupturing of red blood cells), sickle cell disease, hemolytic disease of the newborn.

WHITE BLOOD CELLS AND DEFENSE AGAINST DISEASE

White blood cells are classified into granular leukocytes and agranular leukocytes. Some of these have noticeable granules and some do not have noticeable granules.

Granular leukocytes include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.

Neutrophils account for 50-70% of white blood cells. Neutrophils are abundant and respond first to infections. They phagocytize pathogens. See illustration to left.*

These increase in number in the event of parasitic infection or an allergic reaction.
See illustration.*

The basophil releases histamine associated with allergic reactions. Histamine dilates blood vessels, but constricts the air tubes that lead to the lungs. Like during an asthma attack.

Agranular leukocytes include lymphocytes and monocytes.

Monocytes are the largest of white blood cells. They can become macrophages that phagocytize pathogens and cellular debris. See illustration.*

Lymphocytes are responsible for specific immunity. See illustration.*

All blood cells are produced in the red bone marrow from stem cells. These cells live about 120 days and are eventually destroyed in the spleen and liver.

PLATELETS AND BLOOD CLOTTING

Platelets are a result from fragmentation megakaryocytes in the red bone marrow. Platelets function in blood clotting. Platelets are produced at a rate of 200 billion a day.

Platelets and two plasma proteins, function in blood clotting, an enzymatic process that results in fibrin threads, which trap red blood cells.

Disorders relating to blood clotting are hemophilia and thrombocytopenia.

BLOOD TYPING AND TRANSFUSIONS

Blood transfusion is the transfer of blood from one individual to another.

Blood typing involves determining the ABO blood group and whether the person is Rh- or Rh+

Type A blood is type A surface antigens, plasma has anti B antibodies.

Type B blood is type B surface antigens, plasma has anti A antibodies.
Type AB blood is both type A and type B surface antigens, plasma has neither anti A nor anti B antibodies.
Type O blood is neither type A nor type B surface antigens, plasma has neither anti A nor anti B antibodies.

Agglutination occurs if the corresponding antigen and antibody are put together.

RH antigen must also be considered when transfusing blood. It is very important during pregnancy because an Rh- mother may form antibodies to the Rh antigen while carrying or after the birth of an Rh+ child. These antibodies can cross the placenta to destroy the red blood cells of any subsequent Rh+ child.

HOMEOSTASIS

Homeostasis depends upon the cardiovascular system because it serves the needs of the cells. Several other boy systems are also critcal to cardiovascular systems function: 1. digestive system supplies nutrients 2. respiratory system supplies oxygen and removes carbon dioxide from the blood 3. nervous and endocrine systems are involved in maintaining blood pressure 4. lymphatic system returns tissue fluid to the veins 5. Skeletal muscle contraction and breathing movements propel blood in the veins.

CHAPTER 7

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY

MICROBES, PATHOGENS, AND YOU

Microbes perform valuable services, but they also cause disease.

Bacteria are prokaryotic cells that live and reproduce independently of host cells and cause disease by multiplying in hosts and also by producing toxins.

Viruses are noncellular particles, consisting of a protein coat and a nucleic acid core, take over the machinery of the host in order to reproduce and can emerge and cause new diseases the human body has difficulty combating.

Prions, proteinaceous infectious particles, cause a group of degenerative diseases of the nervous system, also called wasting diseases. A common example is mad cow disease. However, the incidence of prion diseases in humans is very low.

THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

The lymphatic system consists of lymphatic vessels and lymph organs. Lymph vessels form a one way system, capillaries, vessels and ducts that take lymph to cardiovascular veins in shoulders. Lymph is usually a colorless liquid that is secreted by cells.

Primary lymphatic organs are: red bone marrow, thymus gland.

Seconday lymphatic organs are the spleen, lymph nodes, tonsiles, peyers patches and the appendix. Blood is cleansed of pathogens and debris in the spleen.

Lymph is cleansed of pathogens and debris in the nodes.

NONSPECIFIC DEFENSES

Immunity involves nonspecific and specific defense. Non specific are 1. barriers to entry, skin and mucous membranes. 2. Chemical barriers, secretion of sebaceous glands, perspriation, saliva and tears. 3. Resident bacteria, normal flora found in mouth, intestine and other areas.

Inflammatory reaction involves phagocytic neutrophils and macrophages and protective proteins.
See illustration.*

SPECIFIC DEFENSES

Specific defenses require B cells and T cells. See illustration.*

B cells undergo clonal selection with production of plasma cells and memory B cells, after, their B cell receptor combines with a specific antigen. Plasma cells secrete antibodies and eventually undergo apoptosis. Apoptosis is programmed cell death involving a cascade of specific cellular events leading to death and destruction of the cell. Antibodies are Y shaped molecules that have two binding sites for a specific antigen. Memory B cells remain in the body and produce antibodies if the smae antigen enteres the body at a later date. See Illustration.*

For a T cell to recognize an antigen, the antigen must be presesented by an antigen presenting macrophage, along with an HLA(human leukocyte antigen) Once T cells are actevited they undergo clonal expansion until the inllness has ben stemmed. Then they to undergo apoptosis. A few will remain as memory T cells.

The two main types of T cells are cytotoxic T cells and helper T cells. Cytotoxic T cells kill virus infected cells or cancer cells on contact because they bear a nonself protein. Helper T cells produce cytokines and stimulate other immune cells.

ACQUIRED IMMUNITY

Active immunity can be induced by vaccines and also depends upon the presence of memory cells in the body. Passive immunity is needed when an individual is in immediate danger of succumbing an infectious disease. Passive immunity is short lived. Monoclonal antibodies have various functions from detecting infections to treating cancer. Cytokines are a form of passive immunity used to treat AIDS and to promote the boldy's ability to recover from cnacer.

HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTIONS

Allergic responses occur when the immune system reacts vigorously to substances not mormally recongnixzed as foreign. Immediate allergic responses are due to the activity of antibodies. Delayed allergic respinses are due to the activity of T cells.

Tissuse rejection happens when the immune system recognixes a tissue as being foreign.

Autoimmune siorders occur when the immune system reacts to tissues or organs of the individual as if they were foreign

AIDS SUPPLEMENT

ORIGIN AND PREVALENCE OF HIV

Acquired immunideficiency syndrome (AIDS) is cause by a virus known as a human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). There are two main types of HIV, HIV-1, HIV-2. HIV-1 is the most widespread.

AIDS is a pandemic because the disease is prevalent in the entire human population aroun the globe.

PHASES OF AN HIV INFECTION

Category A: Acute Phase - in this phase a person has no apparent symptoms, is highly infectious and has a CD4 T cell count that hs\as never fallen below 500 cells per mm3 of blood. During first few weeks of infections some people develop flulike symptoms.

Category B: Chronic Phase - A person in this category would have a CD4 count between 499 and 200 cells per mm3. Some symptoms could be yeast infections, prolonged diarrhea, thick sores on the tongue or shingles.

Category C: AIDS - A person in this category is diagnosed with AIDS. CD4 count falls below 200 cell per mm3, or has developed oe or more of the 25 AIDS defining illnesses. Like: pnewmocystis jiroveci pneumonia, fungal infection of the lungs. Mycobacteruim tuberculosis, bacterial infection nodes or lungs. Toxoplasmic encephalitis, a protozoan parasitic infection, often seen in the brain. Kaposi's sarcoma, canceer of the blood vessels. Invasive cervical cancer.

Death usually follows in tew to four years after AIDS diagnosis.

HIV STRUCTURE AND LIVE CYCLE

The life cycle of an HIV virus includes transmission to a new host.

TRANSMISSION AND PREVENTION OF HIV

HIV is transmitted by sexual contact with an infected person. Also, neddle sharing amon intravenous drug users. A less common mode is through blood transfusions of infected blood.

HIV TESTING AND TREATMENT FOR HIV

There is not a specific test for the HIV, instead the test is done to detect the presence of HIV antibodies in the body.

There is no cure for AIDS, but a treatment called highly active antiretroviral therapy is usually able to stop HIV replication to such an extent that the viral load becomes undetectable.

There are no real vaccines yet as of today. In 2006 26 vacines were undergoing human trials around the world. None of these would be a cure, the vaccine would be a preventive measure that helps people who are not yet infected escape infection or slow down the progression of the disease upon future infection. No results from these tests will be done until about the year 2010.

Self and Unit Evaluation

2008-06-13T17:31:00.000-07:00

Self Evaluation

The three things I am most proud of was both compendium reviews and the microscope lab write-up. The two things that I was least proud of was my cell model and ethical essay. My overall grade should be a high B to a low A. The biggest thing I could do to perform better is to find some more time to devote to my work.

Unit Evaluation

My most engaged moment would be doing the microscope lab. My ethical essay is where I felt most distanced. There wasn't any actions helpful or confusing from anyone.(yet?) The thing that surprised me the most would be how much time and writing there was to complete the unit.

Ethical Essay #1

2008-06-13T17:06:00.000-07:00

Genetic engineering is a process of inserting new genetic information into existing cells in order to modify a specific organism for the purpose of changing one of its characteristics. Genetic engineering isn't something that is brand new to the science world. Matter of fact it has been around for many years with the first animal being cloned in 1997. Work is being done constantly to improve results and how its done. Will it all be worth it or accepted entirely in the end?

Adding genetic material to food and plants seems to be done prematurely. For example, salmon that has had genetic engineering with a growth hormone made it grow to big and too fast and it also turned green. Another example, petunia's that had red color added to it did change color in the petals but decreased fertility and altered growth of roots and leaves. With the unpredictable side effects why take the chance. The Women's Environmental Trust and Greenpeace, stand firmly against this issue and encourages others to take a stand against the issue.

Another part or issue with genetic engineering is cloning humans. Although many animals have been cloned, all had some issues and didn't live very long. The Physicians from the American Medical Association and scientists with the American Association for the Advancement of Science are both against cloning humans. They also believe it is unethical to attempt to clone humans. Animal cloning has been inefficient only about 1 or 2 viable offspring per every 100 experiments has survived at all. These don't seem to be very promising numbers and not good enough to change the minds of these groups.

In conclusion, all of the articles that I chose to read were all against genetic engineering. This is a issue that will always bring debate in the future. A lot of kinks need to be worked out and different developments discovered. I think there will be a lot more to come from genetic engineering. I am personally against it also. If all the "bugs" were worked out and results proving to be better, it could be more beneficial especially for plants or food. I am sure our future will have a lot of talk about genetic engineering and when the time comes I hope scientists take better responsibility with the information they learn.

Gene Lab # 2

2008-06-12T23:28:00.000-07:00

In this lab I learned how to take two parents and determine what they would look like. What genes they inherited from their parents. In the flies lab all of the offspring except for one looked exactly like their parents. The one received short wings instead of long. In the dragon lab my assignment was to make the offspring look like its parent. To be honest, I had trouble at first because I didn't finish reading the material. After reading the material it was pretty clear. Our gene inheritance is important not just for what we look like on the outside but what generations of genes have given us to adapt to what we do now.

In this punnett square both parents were heterozyous long-winged flies. 3 of the offspring also turned out to have long wings. 1 offspring did however get short wings.

Here in the dragon gene lab, it was fun changing alleles (genotype) to see what physical appearance would be (phenotype). By changing alleles, was able to make the offspring look just like the parent in the picture.

A genotype is genes of an individual for a particular trait or traits, often designated by letters, for example, BB or Aa. An example would be in both labs, changing the dragons alleles or picking the right fly parents. A phenotype is a visible expression of a genotype, for example, brown eyes or attached earlobes. Given the dragon horns or no legs, changing its color. A allele is an alternative form of a gene: alleles occur at the same locus on homologous chromosomes. The offspring with short wings. A cross is for example the fly. Both parents were heterozygous long winged flies the offspring will be 75% chance of being like their parents. A dominant allele is an allele that exerts its phenotypic effect in the hererozygote; it masks the expression of the recessive allele. For instance, the dominant allele in the flies were long winged. A recessive allele is an allele that exerts its phenotypic effect only in the homozygote; its expression is masked by a dominant allele. Again the long winged flies.

In conclusion, it is important to know how are genes are put together. It is always interesting to see what the dominant genes are even in our own families. Its awesome to see those recessive genes pop up when nobody knew they existed in the family.

With gene inheritance in other organisms, like plant or animals, the things that help them survive, or help us to survive even, is passed down in our genes for generations that don't know things. Our genes help us to adapt and other living organisms to also adapt over the years. We have become better survivalists by certain things passed down in our genes.

LAB PROJECT #3, CELL MODEL

2008-06-12T22:38:00.000-07:00

I made attempt to make a cell model with jello and lots of candy. Which my kids loved by the way. It didn't go as well as expected. Harder to put together and be able to see everything. In this first picture is some of the supplies I used to get it started. The next picture has the candy labeled to what part of the cell they represented. Now one part not listed in the picture below is the plastic bag used for the cell membrane. Also in this picture on the left is a better picture of the Golgi body, it is the red vine thing in the bottom right of the picture. The nucleus was a giant jawbreaker. Golgi bodies were twizzlers candy. Endoplasmic Reticulum, smooth was gummy worms, rough was sugar coated gummy worms. Ribosomes were nerds. Mitochondria were jelly beans. The vacuoles were dots. Lysosomes were red and green gobstoppers. Cytoplasm was the jello. Centromes were red hots.

Here is a side view of the finished product, the red and green balls represent lysosomes, the big white spot is the nucleus, with ribosomes and the ER around it.

This is a top view of the cell with the cell membrane removed.

This is a side view of the cell also with cell membrane removed.

Side view with cell membrane.

This picture is when I tried to cut cell in half and give a really good inside view. Wanted to cut nucleus in half but it didn't happen. I hope most of you know what a jawbreaker looks like on the inside. The 3 layers inside the jawbreaker represent the layers of a nucleus.

In the next 6 pictures I tried to represent the phases of mitosis as it would happen in a cell.

EARLY PROPHASE

Centrosomes have duplicated. Chromatin in condensing into chromosomes and the nuclear envelope is fragmenting.

PROPHASE

Nucleolus has disappeared, and duplicated chromosomes are visible. Centrosomes begin moving apart and spindle is in process of forming

EARLY METAPHASE

Each chromatid is attached to a spindle fiber. Some spindle fibers stretch from each spindle pole and overlap.

METAPHASE

Centromeres of duplicated chromosomes are aligned at the equator. Spindle fibers attached to the sister chromatids come from opposite spindle poles.

ANAPHASE

Sister chromatids part and become daughter chromosomes that move toward the spindle poles. Each pole receives the same number and kinds of chromosomes as the parental cell.

TELOPHASE

Daughter cells are forming as nuclear envelopes and nucleoli reappear. Chromosomes will become indistinct chromatin.

In conclusion, I had fun doing this project even though it didn't come out how I perceived it to be. I learned a lot about the cell and its functions while putting this model together. I have great respect for the little things, and I mean little, that happen in our bodies. As little as they might be the are of course a basic unit of life. Without the complexity of it we wouldn't be here or would have major problems. So, yes it was fun and my kids of course enjoyed eating the final product. I am glad I did this because I have a higher understanding than I did before.

Compendium Review # 2

2008-06-11T21:26:00.000-07:00

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PATTERNS OF CHROMOSOME INHERITANCE

1. Chromosomes and the Cell Cycle
a. Karyotype
b. cell cycle
2. Mitosis
a. phases
b. Cytokinesis
c. Importance of
3. Meiosis
a. Stages
b. Significance of
4. Comparison of Meiosis and Mitosis
a. Process
b. Spermatogenesis and oogenesis
5. Chromosome Inheritance
a. Changes in chromosome #
b. Changes in Chromosome Structure

DNA BIOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY

6. DNA and RNA Structure and Function
a. Structure and Replication of DNA
b. Structure and function of RNA
7. Gene Expression
a. Structure and function of Proteins
b. Expression
c. Transcription
d. Translation
e. Review
f. Regulation

8. Genomics

a. Sequenced

b. Function and Comparative Genomics
c. Proteomics and Bioinformats are new endeavors

d. Can be modified

9. DNA Technology

a. Genes can be isolated and cloned

b. Specific DNA Sequences can be cloned

c. Biotechnology Products

CANCER

10. Cancer cells

a. characteristics

b. genetic disease
c. types

11. Causes and Prevention of Cancer

a. Heredity

b. Environmental Carcinogens
c. Dietary choices

12. Diagnosis of Cancer

a. 7 warning signs
b. Routine tests

c. Genetic tests
13. Treatment of Cancer

a. Standard Therapies

b. Newer therapies

PATTERNS OF GENETIC INHERITANCE

14. Genotype and phenotype

a. what they are

15. One-and-two trait inheritance

a. Gametes

b. One trait crosses

c. Two trait crosses
d. Family pedigrees

e. Genetic disorders of interest

16. Beyond Simple inheritance Patterns

a. Polygenic

b. Incomplete dominance and co-dominance

c. Multiple alleles

17. Sex-linked Inheritance

a. X-linked alleles

b. Pedigree for X linked disorders

c. Conclusion

PATTERNS OF CHROMOSOME INHERITANCE

Chromosomes and the Cell Cycle

A karyotype is a visual display of a person's chromosomes. Normal karyotype shows 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes. Normal sex chromosomes in a female are XX and in a male XY.

The cell cycle is an orderly process that has two parts: interphase and cell division. Interphase is the part most of the cell is spent in. It's the time that organelles carry on their usual functions. There are 3 stages: 1. G1- cell doubles its organelles. 2. S-stage a copy is made of all DNA in the cell. 3. G2 stage cell synthesizes proteins.
Cell division has 2 stages: M(miotic), and cytokinesis.

Mitosis

Mitosis is duplication division that assures that all body cells have the diploid number and the same kinds of chromosomes as the cell that divides. There are 4 stages of Mitosis. 1. Prophase- chromosomes attach to spindle fibers 2. Metaphase - chromosomes align at the equator 3. Anaphase - chromatids separate, becoming chromosomes that move toward the poles 4. Telophase - Nuclear envelopes form around chromosomes and cytokinesis begins.

This cycle is important to our well being. Mitosis, and the proper working, is critical to growth and tissue repair. See illustration at left.*

Meiosis

Meiosis has two cell divisions: meiosis 1 and meiosis 2. First division homologous chromosomes, ones that look alike pair and separate. Second division sister chromatids separate, resulting in four cells with the haploid number of chromosomes that move into daughter nuclei. See illustration at left.*

Comparison of Meiosis and Mitosis

In prophase I, homologous chromosomes pair, there is no pairing in mitosis. In metaphase I, homologous duplicated chromosomes align at equator. In anaphase I, homologous chromosomes separate.

Spermatogenesis and oogenesis is part of Meiosis. Spermatogenesis is the production of sperm males. Oogenesis is the production of eggs.

Chromosome Inheritance

Meiosis is part of gametogenesis and contributes to genetic diversity.
Changes in Chromosome number is when nondisjunction changes the chromosome #'s becoming trisomy and down syndrome.
Changes in sex chromosome numbers can result in gametes that have too few or too many X or Y chromosomes. These could lead to Turner has one sex chromosome X, Klinefelter has XXY, polly-X has more that two X chromosomes, and Jacobs has XYY.

Changes in structure can produce chromosomes that have deleted, duplicated, inverted, or translocated segments. Translocation can cause some cancers and Alagille. Williams disease caused by and cri du chat because of deletion. See illustration at left.*

DNA BIOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY

DNA and RNA Structure and Function

DNA is a double helix, 2 strands that twist around each other. The strands are polynucleotide strands. Composed of deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate, and a nitrogen- containing base. See illustration on left.*

DNA strands come apart and a new strand forms opposite each old strand. See illustration on left.*

RNA is a single nucleic acid in which the base, uracil occurs instead of thymine. There are 3 forms of RNA: 1. rRNA - found in ribosomes

2. mRNA - carries DNA messages to ribosomes 3. tRNA - tranfers amino acids to the ribosomes where protein synthesis occurs. See illustration to the left.*

Gene Expression

Gene expression leads to the formation of a product, usually protein. Gene expression requires transcription and translation. Transcription is the first step in gene expression. This step occurs in the nucleus. The DNA triplet code is passed to an mRNA that contains dodons. Introns are remved from mRNA during mRNA processing. Translation is the second step and occurs in the cytoplasm at the ribosomes. tRNA molecules bind to their amino acids, and then their anticodons pair with mRNA codons. The illustration to the left show different codons.*

Regulation of gene expression happens at 4 levels: 1. Transcriptional control - degree to which a gene is transcribed. 2. Posttranscriptional control - involves mRNA processing and how fast it leaves the nucleus. 3. Tranlational control - in cytoplasm, affects when translation begins and how long it goes on. 4. Posttranslational control - also in cytoplasm, occurs after protein synthesis.

Genomics

Genomics is the study of all necleotinde sequences, including structural gens, regulatory sequences, and noncoding DNA segments, in the chromosomes of an organism.

Proteomics is the stydy of the structure, function and interaction of cellular proteins.

Bioinformatics is the application of computer technologies to the study of the genome.

A Person's genome can be modified in one of two ways. 1. Ex vivo gen therapy, which is outside the body. 2. In vivo gene therapy which is inside the body.

DNA Technology

Genes can be isolated and cloned. In the illustration below it shows the steps that are taken to clone genes and that bacteria produce a product through same process.*

Specific DNA sequences can also be cloned. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique that uses the enzyme DNA polymerase to produce millions of copies of a particular piece of DNA. This would also go into DNA fingerprinting. See illustration to the left.*

Biotechnology products that are genetically engineered bacteria, plants, and animals. Organisms that have had a foreign gene inserted into them are called trangeici organisms. The table below gives examples of them.*

Transgenic bacteria can promote plant health, remove sulfur from coal, clean up toxic waste and oil spills, extract minerals, and produce chemicals. transgenic crops can resist herbicides and pest. Transgenic animals can be given growth hormone to produce larger animals, can supply transplant organs and can produce pharmaceuticals.

CANCER

Cancer Cells

There are 7 characteristics of cancer cells: 1. Cancer cells lack differentiation - looks distinctly abnormal 2. Cancer cells have abnormal nuclei 3. Cancer cells have unlimited replicative potential 4. Cancer cells form tumors 5. Cancer Cells have no need for growth facotrs 6. cancer cells gradually become abnormal 7. Cancer cells undergo angiogenesis and metastasis.

Cancer is a multistage process that is broken down into 3 phases: 1. Initiation 2. Promotion 3. Progression. These stages are illustrated here.*

In this illustration it show the difference between normal and cancer cells.*

There are 4 main types of cancer: 1. Carcinomas - originate in the epithelial tissue. 2. Sarcoma - originate in muscle and connective tissues 3. Leukemias - originate in the blood

4. Lymphoma - originate in lymphatic tissue.

Causes of cancer could be hereditary, caused by environmental carcinogens, and dietary choices.

Diagnosis of Cancer

There are tests that can bring diagnosis of cancer: 1. pap test for cervical cancer 2. mammogram for breast cancer 3. tumor marker tests 4. biopsy and imaging 5. tests for genetic mutations.

There are 7 warning signs of cancer: 1. Change in bowel or bladder habits. 2. A sore that does not heal 3. Unusual bleeding or discharge. 4. Thickening or lump in breast or elsewhere. 5. Indigestion or difficulty in swallowing. 6. Obvious change in wart or mole 7. Nagging cough or hoarseness. Take each letter at the beginning of each sign and it spells out the word CAUTION!

Treatment of cancer can range from radiation and chemotherapy, bone marrow transplants, immunotherapy, gene therapy, inhibitory drugs, which are being investigated.

PATTERNS OF GENETIC INHERITANCE

Genotype and Phenotype

Genotype refers to the alleles of the individual. Phenotype refers to the physical characteristics associated with these alleles. Homozygous dominant individuals (EE) have dominant phenotype. Homozygous recessive individuals (ee) have recessive phenotype. Heterozygous individuals (Ee) have dominant phenotype.

One and two trait inheritance

An individual has two alleles for every trait, a gamete has one allele for every trait.

This punnett square shows how the gametes will turn out.* For a monohybrid x monohybrid a 3:1 ration is expected from offspring. With a monohybrid and recessive cross a 1:1 ratio is expected among offspring.

If an individual is heterozygous for two trait, 4 gamete types are possible as can be substantiated by knowledge of meiosis.

A pedigree shows the pattern of inheritance for a trait from generation to generation of a family.

It was much easier seeing these illustrations above to understand the Autosomal Recessive and Autosomal Dominant disorders, they explain it better than I.

The genetic disorders of interest are: Tay-Sachs, cystic fibrosis, phenylketonuria and sickle-cell diseases, these are autosomal recessive disorders.

Marfan syndrome and Huntington disease are autosomal dominant disorders.

Polygenic traits are skin color and height which are governed by several sets of alleles.

In Incomplete dominance the heterozygote is intermediate between the two homozygotes. In codominance both dominant alleles are expressed equally.

Multiple Allele Inheritance the pattern in exemplified in humans by blood type inheritance.

Sex-Linked Inheritance

Many genes on the X chromosome are unrelated to the gender of the individual. Males usually have the XY chromosomes and females the XX chromosome.

For the Pedigree X linked disorders this illustration* helped me to understand best. Even more so than just reading the text. Like most X- linked disorder, color blindness, muscular dystropy, and hemophilia are recessive.

In conclusion, all of these chapters were packed with great information. I now understand how cancer is formed and what it does to your cells and how the progression can move rapidly. Understanding the small pieces of DNA and how it is replicated is an awesome process. The scientists and people who study this are amazing that they have found so much information to help a world full of people in the future. I can relate to the genes and inheritance. It is interesting how you can put two things together and wonder what it will come out like. I can put that into my own life with seeing what traits my kids got from both of us as their parents. Of course not all went they way we wanted but that is what makes them unique. Although, each of our kids got some of the same characteristics, it is neat to see which of the characteristics they don't share.

*All photos were used from this website.
http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/classware/selfstudy.do?isbn=0072986867