SELF AND UNIT EVALUATION UNIT #4

SELF EVALUATION

1. I am most proud of both of my compendium reviews and quiz #1, finally a 100%.
2. I could of improved my ethical essay a lot, and the final lab.
3. I believe my overall grade should be an A.
4. This is the last unit. HOORAY!!!!

UNIT EVALUATION
1. I actually felt most engaged doing the last lab and thinking what species we interact with daily.
2. I don't have a specific on feeling distance from the course.
3. As always, the links were very helpful.
4. Nothing was confusing or puzzling.
5. At the end of the course, I found nothing that was surprising

ETHICAL ESSAY - WHO SHOULD REPRODUCE

In thinking about this topic and thinking about the changes in the world how do we answer this question? First of all, I don't think we should be able to decide on who should reproduce. In some countries maybe there should be a little restraint or boundaries. Here in the United States I think families are getting smaller as years go on. Having five or six kids use to be the norm and great. Now two maybe three is enough. For some families the decision of having children is based on income and if it could be afforded. Unfortunately, it is getting more expensive just to live, much less raise a big family. Today, prices of food, gas, electric and other needed amenities is skyrocketing. What can we do? Honestly, I don't have any good answers for that. But we need to do all we can to help preserve.



I know that we as a society are using more of our natural resources than we ever were. I wonder how our grandparents ever survived without big SUV's, cell phones, internet, computers, oh and somebody else to do the cooking. Yes, I love all these things, but maybe we can use them a little less and save some oil. We can also take our part and help save some of these resources. Cutting back on certain things and recycling. Everything created on Earth was meant for us to use and we need to try to ensure that there will be some for the next generation, for my kids to grow up and their kids to grow up.

SPECIES INTERACTION LAB

SPECIES #1

SCIENTIFIC NAME: APIS MELLIFERA

COMMON NAME: HONEYBEE

INTERACTION: COMMENSAL BECAUSE WE GET HONEY FROM THEM.

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: YES

SPECIES #2
SCIENTIFIC NAME: ARACHIS HYPOGAEA

COMMON NAME: PEANUT

INTERACTION: SYMBIOTIC BECAUSE WE PLANT THEM AND COMMENSAL MAYBE BECAUSE WE EAT THEM, PEANUTS ARE USED TO MAKE PEANUT BUTTER

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: YES, WE PLANT THEM

SPECIES #3

SCIENTIFIC NAME: CANIS FAMILARIS
COMMON NAME: DOG

INTERACTION: SYMBIOTIC, WE FEED AND TAKE CARE OF THEM AND THEY PROVIDE COMPANIONSHIP AND SOME A WATCHDOG.
DOMESTICATED SPECIES: YES

SPECIES #4

SCIENTIFIC NAME: PSITTACUS ERITHACUS

COMMON NAME: AFRICAN GREY PARROT

INTERACTION: SYMBIOTIC, I FEED HIM AND GIVE HIM ATTENTION ALL HE DOES IS TALK BACK. HA HA!
DOMESTICATED SPECIES: SOME ARE PETS BUT THERE ARE STILL SOME IN THE WILD

SPECIES #5

SCIENTIFIC NAME: CHRYSEMYS SCRIPTA ELEGAN

COMMON NAME: RED EARED SLIDER

INTERACTION: SYMBIOTIC, WE FEED AND PROVIDE A HOME AND HE ALSO PROVIDES US WITH ENTERTAINMENT.
DOMESTICATED SPECIES: SOME ARE PETS BUT THERE ARE STILL SOME IN THE WILD

SPECIES #6

SCIENTIFIC NAME: GOPHERUS AGASSIZII

COMMON NAME: DESERT TORTOISE
INTERACTION: SYMBIOTIC, FEED AND PROVIDE SHELTER

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: SOME ARE PETS BUT THERE ARE STILL SOME IN THE WILD

SPECIES #7

SCIENTIFIC NAME: GOSSYPIUM

COMMON NAME: COTTON

INTERACTION: NOT SURE WHICH CATEGORY, BUT WE USE IT FOR MAKING OF CLOTHES

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: YES

SPECIES #8

SCIENTIFIC NAME: H2O

COMMON NAME: WATER

INTERACTION: IT PROVIDES US WITH HYDRATION

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: YES

SPECIES #9

SCIENTIFIC NAME: DRACAENA SANDERIANA

COMMON NAME: LUCKY BAMBOO
INTERACTION: SYMBIOTIC, I PROVIDE WATER, CARBON DIOXIDE, IT PROVIDES BEAUTY AND OXYGEN

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: YES

SPECIES #10

SCIENTIFIC NAME: TRITICUM AESTIVUM

COMMON NAME: WHEAT

INTERACTION: COMMENSAL, BECAUSE I GET FOOD FROM IT.

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: YES

SPECIES #11

SCIENTIFIC NAME: BOS PRIMIGENIUS TAURUS

COMMON NAME: COW

INTERACTION: COMMENSAL, BECAUSE WE DRINK MILK FROM IT AND EAT ITS MEAT

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: YES

SPECIES #12
SCIENTIFIC NAME: SOLANUM TUBEROSUM
COMMON NAME: POTATO

INTERACTION: COMMENSAL BECAUSE WE EAT THEM

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: YES

SPECIES #13

SCIENTIFIC NAME: ZEA MAYS

COMMON NAME: CORN

INTERACTION: COMMENSAL, BECAUSE WE EAT THEM

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: YES

SPECIES #14

SCIENTIFIC NAME: GALLUS DOMESTICUS

COMMON NAME: CHICKEN

INTERACTION: COMMENSAL, BECAUSE CHICKENS LAY EGGS AND WE EAT THEM. PREY BECAUSE WE ALSO EAT THE CHICKEN.

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: YES

SPECIES #15

SCIENTIFIC NAME: BETTA SPLENDENS

COMMON NAME: BETA OR CHINESE FIGHTING FISH

INTERACTION: SYMBIOTIC, I FEED HIM AND PROVIDE SHELTER.

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: YES

SPECIES #16

SCIENTIFIC NAME: DERMATOPHAGOIDES FARINAE

COMMON NAME: DUST MITES

INTERACTION: PARASITIC, LIVES OFF OF THINGS LIKE DEAD SKIN CELLS FROM US
DOMESTICATED SPECIES: NO

SPECIES #17

SCIENTIFIC NAME: SELASPHORUS SASIN
COMMON NAME: HUMMINGBIRD

INTERACTION: SYMBIOTIC, FEED THEM WITH FEEDERS OUTSIDE AND THEY PROVIDE THEIR BEAUTY TO WATCH.

DOMESTICATED: NO

SPECIES #18

SCIENTIFIC NAME: JUNIPERUS COMMUNIS

COMMON NAME: JUNIPER

INTERACTION: SYMBIOTIC, THEY PROVIDE SHADE AND SOME BEAUTY

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: NO

SPECIES #19

SCIENTIFIC NAME: DEPENDS

COMMON NAME: SUSHI

INTERACTION: COMMENSAL, DEPENDING ON THE TYPE OF FISH OR SEAFOOD USED IT IS PROVIDING US WITH FOOD

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: NO

SPECIES #20

SCIENTIFIC NAME: NONE FOUND SOMETIMES REFERRED TO AS CALCULUS
COMMON NAME: TARTAR

INTERACTION: NOT SURE, BUT WE TAKE IT OFF BY BRUSHING OUR TEETH

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: NO

SPECIES #21
SCIENTIFIC NAME: MANIS RELIGIOSA

COMMON NAME: PRAYING MANTIS

INTERACTION: SYMBIOTIC, WHEN MY LIGHTS ARE ON IN MY HOUSE AT NIGHT IT ATTRACTS BUGS, THE PRAYING MANTIS GETS RID OF SOME OF THESE BUGS.

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: NO


SPECIES #22

SCIENTIFIC NAME: PHOLCUS PHALANGIOIDES

COMMON NAME: DADDY-LONG LEGS SPIDER

INTERACTION: SYMBIOTIC, KILLS BUGS FOR ME

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: NO

SPECIES #23

SCIENTIFIC NAME: APHONOPELMA CHALCODDES

COMMON NAME: TARANTULA

INTERACTION: SYMBIOTIC, TAKES CARE OF BUG PROBLEMS

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: NO


SPECIES #24

SCIENTIFIC NAME: SCELOPOROUS TRISTICHUS

COMMON NAME: LIZARD

INTERACTION: SYMBIOTIC, I LET HIM LIVE ON THE SIDE OF MY HOUSE AND HE EATS LOTS OF BUGS

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: NO

SPECIES#25

SCIENTIFIC NAME: HOMOSAPIEN

COMMON NAME: MY KIDS

INTERACTION: SYMBIOTIC, PLAYING, OR ARGUING AND EVERYTHING ELSE FAMILY DOES

DOMESTICATED SPECIES: YES, WELL SOMETIMES I WONDER. JUST KIDDING!

HUMAN POPULATIONS DEMOGRAPHICS LAB FOR UNIT #4

In this illustration, is the high fertility rate of Africa.

In this illustration is the low fertility rate country of Belgium.

1. What was your high fertility rate country and what was its fertility rate?
- Africa was my high fertility rate country, its rate was 5.92.

2. What was your low fertility rate country and what was its fertility rate?

- Belgium was my low fertility rate country, its rate was 1.6
3. The initial demographic "shape" of your high fertility rate country should have been a pyramid, with high population in young age groups. Explain why high fertility rate results in a high percentage of young people in the population. How does this affect future population growth?

- There are a higher percentage in young people because there is more reproducing per person, this will also continue and the population will increase over time.
4. Your low fertility rate country might have had a more oval-shaped curve with high population in middle age groups. This is especially exaggerated if the fertility rate is below 2.00. Explain why low fertility rate leads to lots of middle-aged people.
-People are reproducing less, at a slower rate, over years so middle aged category will increase and older people will die of natural causes.

5. Write ten adjectives or descriptive phrases for what you might expect life, people's attitudes, conditions on the streets, etc. will be like in each of those situations. Imagine a situation with lots of middle-aged and older people in the population and write ten quick "brain-storm" descriptors for you think it would be like (Prescott, Arizona?). Then do the same for a situation with lots of children in the population.

- middle-aged and older- responsible, slow, old, boring, organized, strict, clean, hardworking, doesn’t adapt easily to change.

- young people - energetic, irresponsible, fun, adapts easy, messy, spontaneous, loud, school, active, fast food.

COMPENDIUM REVIEW #2 FOR UNIT #4

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 22 - HUMAN EVOLUTION
1. ORIGIN OF LIFE
a. Primitive earth
b. Small organic molecules
c. Macromolecules
d. Protocell
e. True cell
2. BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
a. Common descent
b. Intelligent design
c. Natural selection
3. CLASSIFICATION OF HUMANS
a. DNA data and human evolution
b. Humans are primates
c. Comparison
4. EVOLUTION OF HOMINIDS
a. First hominids
b. Features
c. Earliest fossil
d. Australopithercines
e. Southern Africa
f. Eastern Africa
5. EVOLUTION OF HUMANS
a. Early homo
b. Modern humans
c. Neandertals
d. Cro-magnons
e. Human variation

CHAPTER 23 - GLOBAL ECOLOGY AND HUMAN INTERFERENCES
6. THE NATURE OF ECOSYSTEMS
a. Ecosystems
b. Biotic components
c. Energy flow and chemical cycling
7. ENERGY FLOW
a. Trophic levels
b. Ecological pyramids
8. GLOBAL BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
a. Water
b. Carbon
c. Nitrogen
d. Phosphorus

CHAPTER 24 - HUMAN POPULATION, PLANETARY RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION

9. HUMAN POPULATION GROWTH
a. MDC's versus LDC's
10. HUMAN USE OF RESOURCES AND POLLUTION
a. Land
b. Water
c. Food
d. Energy
e. Minerals
11. BIODIVERSITY
a. Loss
b. Direct value
c. Indirect value
12. WORKING TOWARD SUSTAINABLE SOCIETY
a. Today's unsustainable
b. Characteristics of sustainable
c. Assessing economic well being and quality of life

CHAPTER 22 - HUMAN EVOLUTION
Origin of Life

A fundamental principle of biology states that all living things are made of cells and that every cell comes from a preexisting cell. Could chemical evolution have produced that first cell?

Using outside energy source, small organic molecules were produced by reactions between early Earth's atmospheric gases. See illustration.*
Macromolecules evolved and interacted.

The RNA-first hypothesis was only macromolecule RNA was needed for the first cell.
The protein-first hypothesis was amino acids join to form polypeptides when exposed to dry heat.
The protocell lived on preformed organic molecules in the ocean. The protocell eventually became a true cell once it had genes composed of DNA and could reproduce.

BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

Biological evolution explains both the unity and diversity of life.

Descent from a common ancestor explains the unity of living things.

Adaptation to different environments explains the great diversity of living things.

The fossil record gives us the history of life in general and allows us to trace the descent of a particular group. This indeed says that fossil evidence supports evolution. See illustration.*

Darwin discovered evidence for common descent.

The distribution of organisms on Earth is explainable by assuming that organisms evolved in one locale. This is biogeographical evidence.
The common anatomies and development of a group of organisms are explainable by descent from a common ancestor. This is anatomical evidence.

All organisms have similar biochemical molecules. This is biochemical evidence.

Darwin also developed a mechanism for adaptation known as natural selection.

The result of natural selection is a population adapted to its local environment.

See illustration.*





CHAPTER 23 - GLOBAL ECOLOGY AND HUMAN INTERFERENCES

The Nature of Ecosystems

The study of the interactions of organisms with each other and with the physical environment is ecology. An ecosystem is organisms interacting with chemical and physical environment.



Forests, grasslands, and deserts, which include the tundra are all part of terrestrial ecosystems. See illustration.*

Aquatic ecosystems include either fresh or salt water. See illustration.*

Biotic components of an ecosystem. See illustration.*

In a community, each population has a habitat and a niche(role in the community).
Autotrophs produce organic nutrients for themselves and others from inorganic nutrients and an outside energy source.
Heterotrophs consume organic nutrients.

Consumers are herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores.

Decomposers feed on detritus, releasing inorganic substances back into the ecosystem.

Ecosystems are characterized by energy flow and chemical cycling.

Energy flows through the populations of an ecosystem and chemicals cycle within and among ecosystems. See illustration.*

ENERGY FLOW
Various interconnecting paths of energy flow are called a food web. A food web shows how various organisms are connecting by eating relationships.

Grazing food webs start with vegetation(for herbivores), that actually become food for a carnivore. Detrital food webs begin with detritus, food for decomposers and food for detritivores. Detrital food webs can be eaten by above ground carnivores, which join the two food groups together. See illustration.*

A trophic level is all organisms that feed at a particular link in a food chain.

An ecological pyramid is when the flow of energy with large losses between successive trophic levels.

GLOBAL BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

Chemicals circulate through ecosystems via biogeochemical cycles, pathways involving both biotic and geological components.

Biogeochemical cycles can be gaseous, sedimentary, have reservoirs that contain inorganic nutrients available to living things on a limited basis.

Exchange pools are sources of inorganic nutrients.

In biotic communities of an ecosystem, nutrients cycle among them.

Examples being fossil fuels, minerals in rocks, sediment in oceans, the atmosphere, soil and water.

In the water cycle, the reservoir is freshwater that evaporates from the ocean.

Water that falls on land enters the ground, surface water, or aquifers and evaporates again.

All water returns to the ocean. See illustration.*

In the carbon cycle, the reservoirs are organic matter, limestone, and the ocean.

The exchange pool is the atmosphere. Photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Respiration and combustion add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. See illustration.*

In the nitrogen cycle, the reservoir is the atmosphere. Nitrogen gas must be converted to a form usable by plants.

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert nitrogen gas to ammonium, a for plants can use. Nitrifying bacteria convert ammonium to nitrate.

Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrate back to nitrogen gas. See illustration.*



In the phosphorus cycle, the reservoir is the ocean sediments.

Phosphate in ocean sediments become available through geological upheaval, which exposes sedimentary rock to weathering.

Weathering slowly makes phosphate available to the biotic community. Phosphate is a limiting nutrient in ecosystems. See illustration.*

CHAPTER 24 - HUMAN POPULATION, PLANETARY RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION

HUMAN POPULATION GROWTH


Populations have a biotic potential for increase in size. Biotic potential is normally held in check by environmental resistance. Population size usually levels off at carrying capacity. See illustration.*

MDC'S (more-developed countries) have a .1% growth rate since 1950. The LDC (less-developed countries) growth rate is 1.6% after peaking at 2.5% in the 1960s. Age structure diagrams can be used to predict population growth. See illustration.*

MDC's are approaching a stable population size and LDC populations will continue to increase in size.

HUMAN USE OF RESOURCES AND POLLUTION
Land, water, food, energy, and minerals are the 5 resources maximally used by humans.
Some resources are nonrenewable and some are renewable. The nonrenewable resources are not replenished and are limited in quantity, like land, fossil fuels and minerals.
Renewable resources are replenished but still are limited in quantity, like water, solar energy, and food.

For land, human activities contribute to erosion, pollution, desertificaiton, deforestation and loss of biodiversity. These activities include habitation, farming and mining.

For water, industry and agriculture use most of the freshwater supply. Supplies are increased by damming rivers and drawing from aquifers. As aquifers are depleted, subsidence, sinkhole formation and saltwater intrusion can occur. Water conservation methods could cut world water consumption by half, if used by industries. See illustration.*

For food, food comes from growing crops, raising animals, and fishing. Modern farming methods increase the food supply, but some methods harm the land, pollute water, and consume fossil fuels excessively. Genetically engineered plants increase the food supply and reduce the need for chemicals.

Raising livestock contributes to water pollution and uses fossil fuel energy. The increased number and high efficiency of fishing boats have caused the world fish catch to decline.

For Energy, fossil fuels are nonrenewable, like oil, natural gas, and coal. When we burn fossil fuels to clear land for farming, causes pollutants and gases to enter the air.

Greenhouse gases include CO2 and other gases. These gases cause global warming because solar radiation can pass through, but infrared heat cannot escape back into space. Renewable resources include hydropower, geothermal, wind and solar power. See illustration.*

For minerals, they are nonrenewable resources that can be mined. These include, sand, gravel, phosphate, and metals. Mining causes destruction of the land by erosion, loss of vegetation, and toxic runoff into bodies of water. Some metals are dangerous to health.

Billions of tons of solid waste are discarded on land and in water. Heavy metals (lead, arsenic, cadmium, chromium), Synthetic organic chemicals, include CFCs, found in plastics, pesticides, herbicides, and other products. Ozone shield destruction is associated with CFCs. Other synthetic organic chemicals enter the aquatic food chain where the toxins become more concentrated.

BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity is the variety of life on Earth. The five major causes of biodiversity loss and extinction are, habitat loss, introduction of alien species, pollution, overexploitation of plant and animals, and disease.
There are 2 values of biodiversity: direct and indirect.

Direct values are medicinal value(medicines), agricultural value(crops, biological pest controls and animals pollinators), and consumptive use values(food production).

Indirect values are waste disposal, freshwater provision through the water biogeochemical cycle, prevention of soil erosion, function of biogeochemical cycles, climate regulation, and ecotourism(human enjoyment of a beautiful ecosystem).

WORKING TOWARD A SUSTAINABLE SOCIETY

Here in the illustration* are things not to do to attain a sustainable society.

A sustainable society would use only renewable energy sources, would reuse heat and waste materials, and would recycle almost everything. It would also provide the same goods and services presently provided and would preserve biodiversity.

*http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/classware/selfstudy.do?isbn=0072986867

EMBRYONIC AND FETAL DEVELOPMENT LAB

First of all, I think every stage is very important and it was hard to pick ten.

Anyway, the list of stages I picked are: 1. Conception/Fertilization, 2. Nervous system beginning to develop, 3. Heart development, 4. limb buds and sensory organs, 5. Bone and facial features, all systems are developing, 6. fetal movement felt by mother, skeleton is visible, hair, and gender 7. Heartbeat heard, protective cheesy coating called vernix, pain and heart 8. Skeleton, gender, hair 9. Grasp things, heartbeat can be heard, protective coating 10. Fetus is almost ready.

The first event I chose is Fertilization. To me it is significant because this is when it all starts and begins to form. All chromosomes are present and unique life begins. See illustration.*

Second event - On day 22 the heart beats and pumps own blood. This is significant because it is starting to become more of a life with its own heart beat.

Third event - Nervous system in week 3 starts to develop. Blood vessels are present. Placenta starts to also form. Its important because the nervous system "runs" the body. This is how we feel things etc.

Fourth event - In week 5, limbs and hands, nose, eyes and ears are noticeable. Important because we know that smelling, seeing and hearing are developing and all 4 limbs are present.


Fifth event - Week 8 - All systems are developing, bone, and facial features. Important because bone is starting to form to protect organs and systems that are developing. Becoming someone unique with facial features starting to be noticeable. See illustration.**

Sixth event - Weeks 10 and 11 - All systems are functioning. Important because the baby starts to "breathe" amniotic fluid and helps lungs develop.

Seventh event - Week 12 and 14 - baby can feel pain, heart is pumping well. I feel this stage is important because the baby can feel and his own heart is pumping several quarts of blood a day.

See illustration.**

Eighth event - Month 4 -Skeleton, gender, hair. Knowing the skeleton is developing by being able to see it at this stage. To a mom it is sometimes important for her to know gender and to see hair growing on their little heads. See illustration.*

Ninth event - 5-6 months - Heartbeat is heard, baby grasps things and protective coating forms. For a mom there is nothing better than hearing the baby's heartbeat for the first time and watching the baby hold things in the womb. Also, the protective coating, which is the vernix, helps protect delicate skin from the amniotic fluid. See illustration.**

Tenth event - 7-9 months - Baby is almost ready. Here it is important to know that the eyes open and close, uses 4 out of 5 senses, relate to the mood of the mother, immune system is forming and getting stronger, the heart pumps about 300 gallons of blood per day. To know that the "thing" growing inside the womb is a little person ready to come and meet the world.
See illustration.**

This was a fairly easy lab, but every website I looked at had things a little different. It was extremely hard to tell what I thought were the most significant events are and some of them I took from a moms point of view. For example, knowing the heart beats, and there are fingers, toes, arms, and legs. Gender is also important, although I never found out what the gender was of my babies until they were born. I think every stage from day 1 is equally important in development because it all benefits a final result, a baby.

*http://www.medicinenet.com/fetal-development-pictures-slideshow/article.htm

**http://www.nrlc.org/abortion/facts/fetaldevelopment.html

COMPENDIUM REVIEW # 1 FOR UNIT # 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 16 - REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

1. Human Life Cycle

a. Mitosis and Meiosis

2. Male Reproductive System

a. Orgasm

b. Testes

c. Hormonal regulation

3. Female Reproductive System

a. Genital tract

b. External genitals

c. Orgasm

4. Female Hormone Levels

a. Ovarian cycle - non pregnant

b. Estrogen and progesterone

c. Uterine cycle - non pregnant

d. Fertilization and pregnancy

5. Control of Reproduction

a. Birth control

b. Fertilization and pregnancy

c. Infertility

6. Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)

a. Caused by virus

b. Caused by bacteria

c. Two other infections

CHAPTER 17 - DEVELOPMENT AND AGING

7. Fertilization

a. Steps

8. Pre-embryonic Development

a. Processes

b. Extraembryonic Membranes

c. Stages

9. Fetal Development

a. Events

b. Development of male and female sex genitals

10. Pregnancy and Birth

a. Birth

b. Stage 1

c. Stage 2

d. Stage 3

11. Development After Birth

a. Hypothesis of aging

b. Effects of age

CHAPTER 16 - REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

HUMAN LIFE CYCLE

In our human life cycle 2 types of cell division is required. Mitosis and Meiosis.

Mitosis is growth and repair of tissues.

Meiosis is gamete production.

MALE PRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The external genitals of males are the penis and the scrotum.

Spermatogenisis is production of sperm in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. Mature sperm is stored in the epididymides. Sperm pass from the vasa deferentia to the urethra. The seminal vesicles, the prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands add fluids to the sperm. These are referred to as semen and seminal fluid. Orgasm in males results in ejaculation of semen from the penis.

See illustration.*



The hypothalamus, the anterior pituitary and the testes regulate hormones, they maintain a fairly constant level of testosterone. See illustration.*

FSH form the anterior pituitary promotes spermatogenesis.

LH from the anterior pituitary promotes testosterone production by interstitial cells.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Oogenesis occurring within the ovaries typically produces one mature follicle each month.

The follicle releases an egg that enters an oviduct. Oviducts lead to the uterus, where implantation and development occur.

The external female genital area includes the vaginal opening, the clitoris, the labia minora and the labia majora. The vagina is the organ of sexual intercourse and the birth canal.

See illustration.*

Orgasm in females culminates in uterine and oviduct contractions.

FEMALE HORMONE LEVELS

Ovarian Cycle: Non-pregnant
The hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary control hormones in the ovarian cycle.

During first half of cycle, FSH from the anterior pituitary causes maturation of a follicle that secretes estrogen and progesterone. After ovulation and during the cycle's second half, LH from the anterior pituitary converts the follicle into the corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone and some estrogen.

Uterine Cycle: Non-pregnant

First of all, estrogen and progesterone regulate the uterine cycle. Estrogen causes the endometrium to rebuild. Ovulation occurs on day 14 of a 28 day cycle. See illustration.*

Progesterone produced by the corpus luteum causes the endometrium to thicken and become secretory.

A low level of hormones causes the endometrium to break down as menstruation occurs.

Fertilization and Pregnancy
If fertilization takes place, the embryo implants itself in the thickened endometrium.
The corpus luteum is maintained because of HCG production by the placenta, and therefore, progesterone production does not cease. Menstruation usually does not occur during pregnancy.

CONTROL OF REPRODUCTION

There are numerous birth control methods and devices are available. A few include: birth control pill, diaphragm, and condoms. Effectiveness varies.

Here in this illustration it shows two surgical ways of birth control.*

Infertility is the failure of a couple to achieve pregnancy after one year of regular, unprotected intercourse. Infertility can be caused by low sperm count and/or a large proportion of abnormal sperm. Infertility in females can be caused by being overweight, or due to pelvic inflammatory disease and endometriosis.

There are assisted reproductive technologies like: artificial insemination by donor (AID), gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT), and intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI).

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES

STDs are caused by viruses, bacteria, protists, fungi, and animals.

STDs caused by viruses include: HIV, genital warts, genital herpes, hepatitis.

STDs caused by bacteria include: chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis.

Two other infections include: bacterial vaginosis, and trichomoniasis.

CHAPTER 17 - DEVELOPMENT AND AGING

FERTILIZATION

Fertilization is the union of a sperm and egg to form a zygote, the first cell of the new individual. The acrosome of a sperm releases enzymes that digest a pathway for the sperm through the zona pellucida. The sperm nucleus enters the egg and fuses with the egg nucleus. See illustration.*

PRE-EMBRYONIC AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

Cleavage, growth, morphogenesis and differentiation are the processes of development.

Cleavage is immediately after fertilization, the zygote begins to divide.
Growth - during embryonic development, cell division is accompanied by an increase in size of the daughter cells.

Morphogenesis refers to the shaping of the embryo and is first evident when certain cells are seen to move, or migrate, in relation to other cells. These movements, the emvbryo begins to assume various shapes.

Differentiation is when cells take on a specific structure and function, differentiation occurs. The first system to become visibly differentiated is the nervous system.

The extraembryonic membranes, chorion, allantois, yolk sac, and amnion, function in internal development.

STAGE DEVELOPMENT


Pre-embryonic development encompasses the events of the first week. See illustration.*

Embryoinc development begins with the second week and lasts until the end of the second month of development. In this stage the major event called gastrulation starts, turns the inner cell mass into the embryonic disk. This is where 3 primary germ layers are formed. See illustration.*

Third week - the nervous system is the first system to develop and the heart starts to develop.

Fourth week and fifth weeks - blood vessels become umbilical blood vessels. Umbilical cord is fully fored. Limb buds appear. 5th week head enlarges, and sense organs become more prominent. See illustration.*

Sixth through eight weeks - Form is easily recognizable as a human being. brain development, head achieves its normal relationship with the body, nervous system is developed enough to permit reflex actions, 38 mm long at end of this period and weighs no more than an aspirin tablet, all organ systems have been established.

FETAL DEVELOPMENT

The umbilical cord stretches between the placenta and the fetus. It is the lifeline of the fetus because it contains the umbilical arteries and vein. See illustration.*

Third and fourth month - the skeleton is becoming ossified. The sex of the fetus becomes distinguishable. If an SRY gene is present, testes and male genitals develop. If not, ovaries and female genitals develop. See illustration.*

Fifth through the ninth months - the fetus continues to grow and to gain weight.

PREGNANCY AND BIRTH

Major changes take place in the mother's body during pregnancy.

Weight gain occurs as the uterus occupies most of the abdominal cavity. Many complaints, such as constipation, heartburn, darkening of certain skin areas, and pregnancy- induced diabetes, are due to the presence of placental hormones.

During birth, a positive feedback mechanism that involves uterine contractions and oxytocin explains the onset and continuation of labor.

During stage 1 of birth the cervix dilates.

During stage 2 of birth the child is born.

During stage 3 of birth the afterbirth is expelled.

DEVELOPMENT AFTER BIRTH

Development after birth consists of infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.

Aging encompasses progressive changes from about age 20 on that contribute to an increased risk of infirmity, disease and death.

Aging may have a genetic basis, may be due to changes that affect the whole body, and may be due to extrinsic factors(diet and exercise)

Deterioration of organ systems can possibly be prevented or reduced in part by utilizing good health habits.

*http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/classware/selfstudy.do?isbn=0072986867